>f  California 

Regional 

Facility 


SCIENTIFIC  TRACTS, 


DESIGNED    FOR 


INSTRUCTION  AND  ENTERTAINMENT, 


AND  ADAPTED  TO 


SCHOOLS,  LYCEUMS,  AND  FAMILIES. 


CONDUCTED    BY 


JOSIAH  HOLBROOK,  AND  OTHERS. 


VOL.    I. 


BOSTON. 
PUBLISHED  BY  CARTER,  HENDEE,  AND  BABCOCK. 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 

1831. 


DISTRICT  OF  MASSACHUSETTS,  TO  WIT: 

District  Clerk's  Office. 


BE  IT  BEMEMBERED,  That  on  the  seventeenth  day  of  May,  A.  D.  1830,  and 
in  the  fiftyfourth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United  States  of  America, 
Carter  and  Hendee,  of  the  said  district,  have  deposited  in  this  office  the  title  of 
a  book,  the  right  whereof  they  claim  as  proprietors,  in  the  words  following,  to 

'  SCIENTIFIC  TRACTS,  designed  for  Instruction  and  Entertainment,  and  adapted 
to  Schools,  Lyceums,  and  Families.  Conducted  by  Josiah  Holbrook,  and  others.' 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  entitlefl,  "An 
Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts  and 
books  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein  men- 
tioned ;"  and  also  to  an  act,  entitled,  "  An  Act  supplementary  to  an  act,  entitled, 
'  An  Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts 
and  books  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  times  therein 
mentioned,'  and  extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engrav- 
ing and  etching  historical  and  other  prints." 

JNO.  W.  DAVIS, 
Clerk  tfthe  District  of  Massachusetts. 


i 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

V.  / 

NUMBER   I. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


FEW  subjects  are  more  important,  or  less  under- 
stood, than  the  atmosphere  we  breathe.  As  it  surrounds 
the  earth,  and  presses  with  great  weight  upon  its  surface, 
it  comes  in  contact  with  everything,  and  bears  a  most 
interesting  relation  to  every  animal  that  walks  upon  the 
earth,  swims  in  the  sea,  flies  in  the  air,  or  creeps  in  the 
dust — to  every  plant  that  is  pleasant  to  the  sight,  or  good 
for  food — and  to  every  mineral  that  glitters  in  its  bed, 
adorns  a  cabinet,  or  is  used  in  the  arts. 

It  moves  our  lungs,  circulates  in  our  veins,  warms  us 
in  our  fires,  enlivens  the  midnight  lamp,  and  makes  it  an 
agreeable  substitute  for  the  light  of  day,  fans  us  in  the 
breeze,  terrifies  us  in  the  tornado,  conducts  sound,  now 
in  the  soft  whisper,  the  voice  of  intelligent  conversation, 
the  flashes  of  the  orator,  or  enchanting  music,  now  in 
the  roar  of  the  cannon,  the  groans  of  the  dying,  or  ter- 
rific thunder  ;  it  wafts  the  ship,  heaves  the  placid  ocean 
into  billows,  takes  the  heat  of  the  equator  and  carries  it 
to  the  poles,  and  exchanges  it  for  a  cooling  breeze,  which 
it  kindly  returns  to  temper  the  scorching  rays  of  the 
torrid  sun ;  or,  using  the  language  of  an  elegant  French 
writer,  '  In  the  use  of  the  atmosphere,  man  is  the  only 
being  who  gives  it  all  the  modulations  of  which  it  is 
susceptible.  With  his  voice  alone,  he  imitates  the 
hissing,  the  cries,  and  the  melody  of  all  animals,  while 
he  enjoys  the  gift  of  speech  denied  to  every  other.  To 
air  he  also  sometimes  communicates  sensibility ;  he 
makes  it  sigh  in  the  pipe,  lament  in  the  flute,  threaten 
in  the  trumpet,  and  animates  to  the  tone  of  his  passions, 
even  the  solid  brass,  the  boxtree,  and  the  reed.  In  a 
word,  he  harnesses  it  to  his  car,  and  obliges  it  to  waft 
him  over  the  stormy  billows  of  the  ocean.' 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


This  faithful  servant  and  constant  friend  is  still  neg- 
lected. Few  appreciate  its  importance,  none  understand 
all  its  uses.  While  every  breath  furnishes  us  with  fresh 
and  living  proof,  that  the  atmosphere  is  faithful  to  its 
trust,  we  seldom  inquire  what  agent  is  constantly  moving 
our  lungs,  or  by  whom  it  was  provided  and  fitted  for  its 
office. 

How  then  can  we  employ  an  hour  more  rationally  or 
pleasantly,  than  in  devoting  it  to  this  constant  companion, 
and  faithful,  but  neglected  friend. 

Before  we  can  understand,  or  at  all  appreciate  the 
importance  and  infinitely  varied  relations  of -this  sub- 
stance which  envelopes  our  globe,  we  must  learn  some- 
thing of  its  properties  and  operations — what  are  its  in- 
gredients, and  how  it  acts. 

All  the  properties  and  operations  of  the  atmosphere 
may  be  classed  in  two  divisions,  viz.  chemical  and  me- 
chanical. Weight  and  elasticity  are  the  properties  by 
which  nearly  all  the  mechanical  operations  are  con- 
ducted ;  and  although  these  operations  are  literally  innu- 
merable and  highly  interesting,  they  must  give  place  on 
the  present  occasion,  to  its  not  less  numerous  or  interest- 
ing uses  and  phenomena  conducted  by  chemical  agen- 
cies. 

Among  the  infinite,  and  infinitely  varied  chemical 
operations,  constantly  carried  on  in  the  processes  of 
nature  and  the  arts,  scarcely  one  can  be  found,  with 
which  the  atmosphere  has  not  some  connexion  and  some 
agency.  It  must  be  understood,  however,  that  in  much 
the  greatest  number  of  cases,  in  which  the  atmosphere 
acts  as  a  chemical  agent,  but  one  portion  of  it  takes  any 
considerable  part.  And  although  this  portion  consti- 
tutes but  about  one  fifth  of  the  whole,  it  fills  a  greater 
variety  of  offices,  is  more  active  and  more  efficient  in 
giving  power  to  other  agents,  in  moving  and  calming 
the  elements,  in  preserving  order  and  promoting  health 
and  happiness,  than  almost  any  other  ingredient  hitherto 
discovered  in  the  material  universe. 

The  name  of  this  most  efficient  and  useful  part  of  the 
atmosphere,  this  almost  universal  agent  in  nature  and  the 
arts,  this  mover  and  regulator  of  other  agents,  and  friend 
of  man,  is  Oxigen. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


No  substance,  unless  it  is  heat,  is  so  universally  diffu- 
sed through  the  material  creation;  none  so  extensive 
and  varied  in  ks  forms  and  combinations ;  none  to  which 
artists  are  obliged  to  make  such  constant  application  for 
aid,  or  so  often  to  consult,  or,  if  not  consulted,  disap- 
points them  with  defeat,  as  this  same  oxigen,  of  which 
we  are  speaking.  It  constitutes  not  only  the  most  inter- 
esting portion  of  the  atmosphere,  but  more  than  seven 
eighths  of  water,  nearly  one  half  of  the  whole  vegetable 
kingdom,  a  considerable  part  of  soils  and  mountains, 
whatever  the  ingredients  or  the  strata  of  rocks  which 
compose  them,  enters  extensively  and  largely  into  the 
ores  of  metals,  and  into  the  rare  and  precious  minerals. 

But  our  subject  is  the  atmosphere,  and  not  water, 
vegetables,  soils,  mountains,  metals,  or  rare  minerals, 
however  interesting,  or  worthy  of  attention.  Oxigen, 
acting  in  the  atmosphere,  is  the  agent  whose  character 
we  are  HOW  examining,  the  constant  companion  we  are 
now  conversing  with,  the  neglected  friend  we  are  now 
consuhing.  We  must  of  course  inquire  what  powers  this 
agent  possesses,  what  part  it  acts  in  the  great  theatre  of 
nature  ;  how  it  gives  success  to  the  industry  of  the  artist, 
and  defeats  his  most  unwearied  attempts  to  go  counter 
to  its  dictates. 

To  explain  fully  all  the  operations  carried  on  by  the 
agency  of  oxigen,  would  require  volumes  instead  of  a 
small  tract.  A  few  of  the  most  important  can  therefore 
be  mentioned,  which  are  the  following. 

I.  Oxigen  supports  life  by  aiding  the  lungs  in  the 
process  of  respiration. 

The  lungs  inhale  air  twentysix  or  twenty-seven  times 
in  a  minute,  taking  in,  at  each  inspiration,  about  forty 
cubic  inches,  which  is  something  over  one  hundred  hogs- 
heads  a  day.  A  chemical  action  is  constantly  carried  on 
by  the  atmosphere  and  lungs,  which  the  Creator  of  both 
has  so  wisely  and  wonderfully  fitted  to  each  other.  By 
this  action,  nine  or  ten  gallons  of  oxigen  are  consumed 
in  an  hour,  or  taken  up  by  the  blood  to  form  another 
kind  of  an  entirely  different  character,  to  be  mentioned 
and  explained  in  another  place. 

Not  only  the  human  race,  but  the  whole  animal  king- 

VOL.  i. — NO.  i.  1  * 


T1IE    ATMOSPHERE. 


dom,  are  constantly  using  and  constantly  consuming  this 
vital  part  of  the  atmosphere.  Fishes  can  no  better  live 
without  air,  or  oxigeu,  than  animals  upon  land.  This 
oxigen  they  obtain  from  air,  which  is  always  contained 
in  water  in  sufficient  quantities  for  their  purposes.  If 
air  is  entirely  removed  from  water  by  distilling,  or  the  air 
pump,  fishes  will  live  in  it  but  little  longer  than  land  ani- 
mals when  shut  from  the  atmosphere.  Not  only  fishes, 
but  insects,  and  the  humblest  reptiles  creeping  in  the 
dust,  need  a  portion  of  oxigen,  which  they  are  constantly 
consuming. 

If  any  animal  be  confined  in  a  vessel  or  tight  room, 
from  which  the  atmosphere  is  entirely  excluded,  he  may 
live  until  the  oxigen  is  so  far  consumed  as  to  be  unfit  for 
respiration,  when  he  will  die.  Many  persons  have  lost 
their  lives  from  the  want  of  a  supply  of  this  vital  air. 
The  most  remarkable  instance,  of  such  a  disaster  on  rec- 
ord, occurred  at  Calcutta,  in  a  prison  called  the  '  black 
hole.'  One  hundred  and  fortysix  English  prisoners  were 
forced  into  a  room  eighteen  feet  square,  from  which  fresh 
air  was  almost  wholly  excluded.  Very  soon  after  they 
entered,  a  profuse  perspiration  commenced,  followed  by 
a  high  fever  and  raging  delirium,  with  cries,  '  air,  air, 
water,  water,'  throwing  out  insults  to  their  merciless  cap- 
tors, that  they  might  be  provoked  to  put  them  out  of  their 
wretched  existence. 

They  entered  this  prison  of  death  at  eight  o'clock  in 
the  evening,  and  at  six  in  the  morning,  but  twentythree 
from  the  whole  number  retained  the  vestiges  of  life. 

Although  oxigen  is  essential  to  the  support  of  life, 
in  a  pure  state  it  will  soon  destroy  it,  by  the  sudden  and 
powerful  excitement  it  produces  in  the  system.  A  few  in- 
halations of  pure  oxigen  will  increase  the  pulse  from  sev- 
enty or  eighty,  to  one  hundred  and  twenty,  or  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty,  beats  a  minute. 

Inhaling  air  with  a  very  little  more  than  the  common 
proportion  of  oxigen,  produces  a  sudden  and  remarkable 
eflect  on  the  system.  The  substance  known  by  the 
aame  of  exhilarating  gas,  which  has  a  similar  eflect  upon 
the  feelings  with  ardent  spirits,  or  more  like  the  vapor 
of  spirits,  or  of  ether,  differs  from  the  common  atmosphere, 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


only  in  containing  thirtyseven  per  cent,  of  oxigen,  instead 
of  twentyone  per  cent. 

Aqua-fortis,  or  nitric  acid,  is  composed  of  the  same 
ingredients  with  the  atmosphere,  and  owes  its  great  pow- 
er in  corroding  almost  every  thing  it  touches,  to  the  seven- 
tyfive  per  cent,  of  oxigen  it  contains. 

A  few  drops  of  this  acid  would  certainly  and  suddenly 
destroy  life,  while  the  atmosphere  is  essential  to  sup- 
port it. 

II.  Oxigen  supports  combustion.  Every  child  knows 
that  fire  will  not  burn  without  air.  But  some  kinds  of 
air  will  instantly  extinguish  it.  Whenever  we  see  com- 
bustion going  on,  whether  in  a  candle,  a  common  fire,  or 
in  the  burning  of  a  city,  we  may  know  that  oxigen  is 
present,  and  is  the  principal  agent  in  producing  the  light, 
the  heat,  or  the  terror.  If  a  burning  body  be  confined 
in  a  small  portion  of  atmosphere,  it  will  continue  to  burn 
until  the  oxigen  is  consumed,  when  it  will  go  out.  Any 
one  may  prove  this  by  a  simple  and  useful  experiment. 
Place  the  small  portion  of  a  candle  upon  a  piece  of  cork 
or  other  light  body,  and  let  them  float  upon  water  in  a 
basin.  While  the  candle  is  burning,  invert  a  pint  or 
quart  glass,  so  as  to  enclose  it,  and  entirely  exclude  the 
atmosphere.  The  flame  will  continue  until  the  oxigen  is 
consumed,  when  it  will  be  extinguished,  and  the  water 
rise  so  as  to  occupy  about  one  fifth  part  of  the  glass,  or  the 
portion  which  was  before  occupied  by  oxigen.  This  ex- 
periment illustrates  two  principles ;  first,  that  oxigen  is 
essential  to  the  existence  of  combustion ;  and  second, 
that  it  constitutes  about  one  fifth  of  the  atmosphere. 

It  is  to  supply  the  fire  with  a  greater  quantity  of  oxigen, 
that  the  bellows  is  used.  It  is  to  exclude  oxigen  from 
burning  coals,  that  they  are  covered  with  ashes,  to  pre- 
serve them  alive  when  left.  While  enough  air  is  admit- 
ted to  continue  the  coals  in  a  state  of  ignition,  the  quanti- 
ty is  not  sufficient  to  carry  on  the  combustion  with  any 
rapidity;  consequently  the  fire  is  not  extinguished,  nor 
the  Coals  consumed. 

If  pure  oxigen  be  thrown  upon  a  burning  body,  it  in- 
stantly increases  the  power  of  the  combustion.  If  a  can- 
dle, just  extinguished,  be  immersed  in  a  vessel  containing 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


this  gas  unmixed  with  any  other  substance,  it  will  be  in- 
stantly relighted.  Many  substances  will  burn  in  this  air 
in  a  pure  state,  which  will  not  in  common  air.  If  iron  be 
heated  and  immersed  in  pure  oxigen,  it  will  instantly 
melt  and  burn,  throwing  its  particles  in  every  direction, 
with  an  intense  and  brilliant  light.  Consequently,  if  the 
oxigen  of  the  atmosphere  were  not  diluted  or  weakened 
by  another  kind  of  air,  stoves,  andirons,  and  numerous 
other  instruments  made  of  iron,  would  melt  and  be  con- 
sumed the  instant  they  were  raised  to  a  high  heat.  Al- 
most everything  would  be  combustible,  and  the  earth 
would  soon  present  one  great  and  general  conflagration. 
How  wise  and  how  good,  then,  is  the  Creator  of  the  atmos- 
phere, not  only  in  furnishing  it  with  oxigen  to  support 
life  and  combustion,  but  in  diluting  it  with  another  sub- 
stance, to  prevent  its  destroying  every  living  being  upon 
the  earth,  and  the  earth  itself! 

III.  Oxigen  carries  on  fermentation.  Without  it, 
neither  cider,  beer,  wine,  or  even  yeast,  or  light  bread, 
could  be  formed.  Almost  all  animal  and  vegetable  sub- 
stances are  liable  to  ferment,  and,  consequently,  to  waste 
with  decay. 

Wherever  we  witness  this  process,  we  may  know  that 
the  same  agent  is  present  and  employed,  as  conducts  res- 
piration and  combustion. 

Numerous  substances  undergo  four  evident  and  distinct 
changes  by  the  power  of  this  agent.  These  four  changes, 
to  which  nearly  all  animal  and  vegetable  matter  is  liable, 
may  be  familiarly  and  clearly  represented  and  illustrated 
by  one  instance  of  common  occurrence,  and  known  to 
every  person.  A  little  reflection  will  bring  to  mind  four 
changes  the  apple  undergoes,  all  of  which  are  produced 
by  oxigen. 

The  first  is  giving  it  a  sweet  taste,  or  forming  in  it  a" 
quantity  of  sugar.  This  change  takes  place  when  apples 
are  bruised,  or  ground  to  pomace,  for  the  making  of  cider. 
A  single  apple,  if  broken  into  pieces,  and  exposed  to  the 
air,  will  show  this  fact.  It  will  soon  become  sweet,  es- 
pecially if  the  weather  is  warm,  whatever  may  be  its  nat- 
ural taste.  The  juice  of  the  apple,  when  running  from 
the  cider  press,  is  always  sweet,  and  contains  sugar.  This 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  9 


sugar  is  formed  by  the  oxigen  of  the  air  combining  with 
the  substance  of.  the  apple. 

During  this  change,  no  spirit  or  alcohol  is  formed,  and 
the  liquid  is  of  course  useless  to  the  distiller,  and  can  do 
no  injury  by  spreading  intemperance.  But  if  it  be  expos- 
ed to  the  air  until  a  second  portion  of  oxigen  is  added, 
the  sugar  is  destroyed  and  alcohol  formed. 

Alcohol,  or  spirits,  whenever  it  exists,  whether  in  beer, 
cider,  wine,  gin,  brandy,  rum,  or  any  other  intoxicating 
liquor,  is  formed  from  sugar. 

In  the  second  change,  or  stage  of  fermentation,  then, 
sugar  is  destroyed  and  alcohol  formed.  This  change  is 
frequently  rapid  and  violent,  especially  if  the  liquor  be 
moderately  warm,  and  freely  exposed  to  the  atmosphere. 
When  a  cask  of  cider,  recently  from  the  press,  is  placed 
in  a  warm  situation,  and  more  if  it  be  shaken,  so  as  to 
bring  a  great  number  of  particles  in  contact  with  the  air, 
a  commotion,  sometimes  violent,  arises  in  the  liquid, 
which  is  produced  wholly  by  the  action  of  oxigen  upon 
it.  If  casks  be  filled  with  the  juice  of  the  apple  as  soon 
as  it  is  expressed,  and  immersed  wholly  under  water,  or 
placed  in  any  other  situation  so  as  entirely  to  exclude  the 
air,  the  second  change  will  be  prevented,  and  no  alcohol 
formed. 

A  third  portion  of  oxigen  destroys  the  alcohol,  and 
forms  an  acid.  This  change  is  always  more  gradual  than 
the  second,  and  sometimes  produced  with  difficulty ; 
though  it  partially  takes  place,  whenever  cider,  beer,  or 
wine,  is  exposed  for  any  length  of  time  to  a  warm  atmo- 
sphere. The  change  may  be  wholly  produced  in  the 
liquids  just  named,  or  in  alcohol,  in  almost  any  other 
form,  if  a  large  surface  be  exposed  to  the  air,  frequent 
motion  given,  and  yeast  or  some  other  fermenter  added. 

Not  only  common  vinegar,  but  most  of  the  stronger 
acids,  are  formed  by  the  agency  of  oxigen.  It  has  al- 
ready been  observed,  that  it  constitutes  about  three  fourths 
of  nitric  acid.  Sulphuric  acid,  or  oil  of  vitriol,  is  formed 
by  burning  sulphur  in  oxigen,  or  with  saltpetre,  which 
contains  it  in  large  quantities.  Phosphoric  acid  is  formed 
by  burning  phosphorus  in  a  similar  way. 

For  a  long  time  it  was  supposed,  that  all  acids  were 


10  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


formed  by  this  agent,  and  hence  its  name,  which  signifies 
the  former  of  acids.  » 

The  fourth  and  last  change,  frequently  witnessed  in 
the  substance  of  the  apple,  is  putrefaction.  If  vinegar 
be  freely  exposed  for  a  long  time  to  a  warm  atmosphere, 
it  becomes  putrid.  The  ultimate  or  final  effect  of  fer- 
mentation, upon  all  animal  and  vegetable  matter,  is,  decay, 
or  an  entire  decomposition. 

Notwithstanding  every  species  of  matter  in  the  whole 
animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms,  is  liable  to  undergo  the 
four  changes  above  described,  certain  circumstances  will 
entirely  prevent  either.  These  circumstances  are,  seclu- 
sion from  the  air  or  moisture,  and  more  than  a  moderate 
degree  of  heat  or  cold. 

By  confining  the  flesh  of  quadrupeds,  of  fowls,  or  of 
fishes,  in  tin  canisters,  perfectly  air  tight,  it  is  kept  for 
years  in  a  fresh  state,  without  injury. 

Fresh  animal  food  has  been  frequently  preserved  in  this 
way  during  a  three  years'  voyage  at  sea.  Any  animal  or 
vegetable  substance,  if  made  perfectly  dry,  will  undergo 
no  fermentation  and  no  decay.  The  same  is  true  if  kept 
in  a  frozen  state,  or  frequently  raised  to  a  temperature 
near  boiling  heat. 

IV.  Oxigen  acts  upon  all  the  metals.  By  this  action 
the  rust  of  iron,  the  dross  of  lead,  the  corrosion  of  cop- 
per, brass,  and  silver,  and  the  most  beautiful  paints,  such 
as  red  and  white  lead,  chrome,  yellow  and  blue  vitriol,  is 
produced. 

Some  of  the  metals  combine  with  oxigen  rapidly,  others 
gradually,  or  even  with  difficulty.  Iron,  for  example,  is 
very  liable  to  rust,  or  oxidate,  as  chemists  say ;  while 
gold  utterly  refuses  to  combine  with  oxigen,  as  it  does 
with  most  other  substances,  except  by  an  indirect  pro- 
cess. If  lead  be  kept  in  a  melted  state  for  a  short  time, 
it  absorbs  so  much  oxigen  as  to  be  changed  wholly  into 
dross,  which  is  an  oxide  lead.  But  gold  may  be  kept  in 
a  state  of  fusion  and  motion  for  months,  or  years,  and 
never  admit  a  particle  of  oxigen  into  its  connexion ;  so 
proud  a  substance  as  gold,  may,  however,  by  an  indirect 
process,  be  led  to  combine  with  oxigen,  and  after  that 
with  many  other  substances,  When  oxigen  once  gets 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  11 


in  possession  of  this  metal,  it  readily  transfers  it  to  the 
surfaces  of  numerous  substances,  and  extends  it  over  a 
greater  space  than  can  be  done  by  beating  or  any  other 
process.  By  the  aid  of  this  agent,  then,  numerous  uten- 
sils, and  even  cloth,  cords,  and  thread,  are  gilded  at  a 
most  trifling  expense. 

Not  only  paints,  but  dyes  are  prepared,  and  attached 
to  the  surfaces  or  fabrics  to  which  they  are  to  be  applied 
by  this  general  agent.  Without  its  aid  in  giving  perma- 
nency to  colors,  most  dyes  are  mere  stains,  and  entirely 
removed  at  the  first  washing.  Some  colors  it  heightens 
or  deepens  after  they  are  applied.  Ink  of  a  good  quality, 
is  sometimes  pale,  when  first  applied  to  paper,  but  after  a 
few  days,  it  becomes  of  a  deep  and  permanent  black. 
Indigo,  when  first  formed  from  the  plant,  is  green,  as  it 
is  when  first  applied  to  cloth ;  but  by  a  short  exposure  to 
the  air,  or  to  oxigen,  it  becomes  the  beautiful  and  perma- 
nent blue  so  extensively  witnessed  in  woollen,  silk,  and 
cotton  goods.  Oxigen  is  not  only  the  most  active  and 
general  agent  in  preparing  colors  and  fixing  them  to  their 
fabrics,  but  it  is  more  generally  and  successfully  employ- 
ed than  any  other,  for  destroying  them.  The  important 
process  of  bleaching  is  conducted  by  it,  whether  by  the 
old  method  of  exposing  cloth  alternately  to  moisture  and 
the  sun,  or  by  the  modern  and  improved  method  of  im- 
mersing it  in  chlorine. 

It  seems,  then,  that  this  remarkable  character  not  only 
fills  numerous  and  important  offices,  but  those  of  almost 
an  opposite  nature,  and  that  it  possesses  properties,  which 
are  not  only  distinct,  but  opposite. 

Though  oxigen  is  by  far  the  most  active  and  general 
agent  in  conducting  the  innumerable  chemical  operations 
of  the  atmosphere,  another  ingredient  is  the  most  abun- 
dant. It  has  already  been  observed,  that  only  one  fifth, 
or,  more  exactly,  twenty  one  per  cent.,  of  the  atmosphere 
is  oxigen.  The  other  essential  ingredient  is  nitrogen, 
which  constitutes  seventynine  parts  in  a  hundred.  This 
ingredient,  though  abundant,  is  almost  wholly  inactive. 
Its  properties  appear  to  be  entirely  of  a  negative  character. 
It  neither  sustains  nor  destroys  life  nor  combustion.  It 
neither  carries  on,  nor  retards,  fermentation  in  any  of 


12  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


its  stages.  It  does  not  act  upon  metals,  nor  interrupt  the 
action  of  its  associate  upon  them.  It  takes  no  part  in 
the  preparation  or  the  application  of  paints  or  dyes,  nor 
in  destroying  them  when  formed.  It  neither  aids  the 
chemist,  the  mechanic,  the  housekeeper,  nor  the  farmer, 
nor  interferes  with  any  of  their  operations.  It  has  no 
agency  in  forming  sugar,  wine,  cider,  beer,  bread,  or 
acids,  nor  in  corroding  metals,  or  spreading  intemperance 
by  intoxicating  liquors. 

Although  the  properties  of  nitrogen  are  almost  wholly 
negative,  and  it  appears  to  be  little  more  than  an  idle 
spectator  to  the  endless  variety  of  phenomena  produced 
by  the  atmosphere,  it  is  still  an  essential,  as  well  as  the 
most  abundant  portion  of  it.  Without  it,  the  air  which 
surrounds  our  globe,  could  not  conduct  those  innumera- 
ble, constant,  but  silent  operations,  with  the  sole  design 
of  promoting  the  health  and  happiness  of  the  innumerable 
living  and  active  beings  it  envelopes. 

The  most  important  office  which  nitrogen  fills  in  the 
great  theatre  in  which  it  moves,  appears  to  be  occupying 
the  space  which  might  otherwise  be  occupied  by  its  more 
powerful  colleague ;  to  dilute  or  weaken  oxigen,  which, 
if  it  occupied  the  whole  region  of  the  atmosphere,  would 
possess  so  much  power  as  to  defeat  the  numerous  objects 
so  wisely  designed  by  its  creation  to  accomplish. 

While  it  never  interferes  with  the  vital  action  of  oxi- 
gen upon  the  lungs,  it  occupies  the  greatest  part  of  their 
contents,  and  by  that  means  prevents  the  violence  and 
consequent  destruction  which  must  be  produced,  if  the 
large  contents  of  those  organs  were  wholly  occupied  by 
the  more  powerful  ingredient  in  the  atmosphere.  While 
it  never  interrupts  the  beautiful  and  useful  phenomenon 
of  combustion  in  its  gentler  forms,  as  in  the  useful  and 
domestic  arts,  it  prevents  the  vast  heap  of  ruins  the  earth 
must  soon  present,  by  a  general  conflagration,  if  it  was 
enveloped  in  an  atmosphere  of  pure  oxigen. 

Not  only  in  the  extensive  and  constant  operations  of 
respiration  and  combustion,  but  in  fermentation,  the  ox- 
idation of  metals,  and  the  minor  offices  of  the  atmosphere, 
it  appears  to  be  the  use  of  nitrogen,  to  prevent  violence, 
and  to  render  the  innumerable  and  endless  movements  in 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  13 

this  vast  theatre  of  nature,  gentle,  uniform,  and  constant, 
at  the  same  time,  that  it  does  not  destroy  or  impair  the 
power  of  the  agent  which  conducts  them. 

This  abundant  and  harmless  portion  of  the  atmo- 
sphere does  not,  like  its  more  enterprising  neighbor, 
infuse  itself  into  nearly  every  mass  of  matter  in  the  three 
great  kingdoms  of  nature,  but,  besides  forming  more 
than  four  fifths  of  the  aerial  ocean  which  surrounds  the 
earth,  it  constitutes  a  considerable  part  of  all  animal 
substances,  though  less  than  oxigen. 

It  is  not  found,  in  any  quantities,  either  in  the  vegeta- 
ble or  mineral  kingdom,  of  both  of  which  oxigen  constitutes 
a  large  part. 

Chemists  have  generally  considered  the  two  substances 
already  spoken  of,  as  the  essential  ingredients  of  the  at- 
mosphere. Several  others  are,  however,  always  found  in 
it,  and  if  they  are  not  concerned  in  its  more  important 
operations,  they  fill  many  minor  offices  in  contributing  to 
the  endless  and  constant  wants  of  the  innumerable  beings 
living  and  acting  upon  the  earth. 

Such  is  carbonic  acid,  or  fixed  air.  This  gas,  which 
is  nearly  twice  as  heavy  as  common  air,  is  found  to  exist, 
at  all  times,  in  every  region  of  the  atmosphere,  from  the 
lowest  ravine  or  cave,  to  the  top  of  the  highest  mountain. 
Except  in  caves,  wells,  and  some  other  low  places,  where 
carbonic  acid  settles  from  its  great  weight,  it  is  never 
found  in  the  atmosphere  except  in  small  quantities,  some 
say  a  hundredth  part,  some  a  thousandth,  but  probably 
variable,  existing  in  larger  quantities,  at  some  times,  and 
in  some  places,  than  others. 

Although  this  substance  is  fortunately  never  found  in 
the  atmosphere  except  in  small  quantities,  it  frequently 
takes  an  important  part  in  promoting  the  happiness,  and 
producing  the  disasters  of  mankind.  It  is  supposed  to 
be  an  important  agent  in  the  process  of  vegetation  ;  veg- 
etables having  the  power  of  extracting  it  from  the  air 
and  converting  it  to  their  own  sustenance  and  growth. 
While  the  whole  animal  kingdom  are  constantly  inhaling 
or  consuming  oxigen,  and  at  the  same  time  throwing  off 
carbonic  acid,  the  vegetable  kingdom  are  inhaling  or 
absorbing  carbonic  acid,  and,  a  part  of  the  time  at  least. 

VOL.  i. — NO.  r.  2 


14  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


are  throwing  off  oxigen.  So  that  these  two  great  king- 
doms of  nature  are  mutually  and  constantly  performing 
these  kind  offices  to  promote  the  growth  and  prosperity 
of  each,  while  they  prevent  the  destruction  of  both,  and 
of  every  living  existence  which  animates,  enriches,  and 
dignifies  this  lower  creation.  For  carbonic  acid  is  not 
only  essential  to  the  growth  of  vegetables,  but  is  certainly 
and  instantly  fatal  to  animals,  one  full  inhalation  of  which 
produces  death,  unless  a  supply  of  oxigen  is  instantly 
provided.  The  moment  a  person  enters  an  atmosphere 
of  this  gas,  as  has  frequently  occurred  in  wells,  and  the 
fermenting  vats  of  breweries  and  distilleries,  he  drops 
lifeless,  and  past  recovering,  except  the  supply  of  vital  air 
is  immediate. 

Carbonic  acid  is  no  less  fatal  to  combustion  than  to 
animal  life.  If  a  burning  candle  or  coal  be  immersed 
in  it,  every  appearance  of  combustion  is  instantly  de- 
stroyed ;  but  it  may  be  again  relighted,  by  letting  it  into 
a  vessel  filled  with  pure  oxigen. 

The  sparkling  appearance  and  agreeable  taste  of  the 
best  cider,  beer,  wine,  and  soda  water,  are  produced  by 
this  active  substance.  By  the  loss  of  it,  they  become 
dead,  as  we  say,  and  are  not  only  unpleasant  to  the  taste, 
but  injurious  to  health.  So  that  the  same  substance 
which  is  distressing  and  fatal  if  taken  into  the  lungs, 
gratifies  the  taste  and  promotes  health  when  received  by 
the  stomach. 

By  three  classes  of  operations  in  nature  and  the  arts, 
carbonic  acid  is  constantly  formed,  and  oxigen  destroyed. 
These  are  respiration,  combustion,  and  fermentation. 
It  has  already  been  remarked,  that  the  whole  animal 
kingdom  are  constantly  consuming  oxigen  ;  they  are  also 
forming  carbonic  acid.  The  same  double  result  is  pro- 
duced in  most  instances  of  combustion,  and  in  every 
instance  of  fermentation,  in  all  its  stages.  It  seems,  then, 
that  the  vital  principle  of  the  atmosphere  is  constantly 
destroyed  in  vast  quantities,  and  that  a  substance  in- 
stantly fatal,  both  to  life  and  combustion,  is  constantly 
forming,  and  yet  the  atmosphere  continues  to  answer  this 
great  purpose  for  which  it  was  designed,  and  without  a 
sensible  change  in  its  character. 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  15 

Chemists  have  not  yet  discovered  any  other  process, 
by  which  this  uniform  and  healthful  state  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  preserved,  but  the  reciprocal  and  mutual 
action  of  the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms ;  the 
former,  as  has  already  been  observed,  by  constantly  con- 
suming oxigen  and  producing  carbonic  acid,  the  latter 
by  taking  up  this  substance  so  fatal  to  life,  and  giving  in 
exchange  the  ingredient  which  supports  it. 

What  a  striking  instance  is  this,  of  economy  displayed 
by  the  great  Architect  of  the  universe,  in  the  work  of 
his  material  creation,  and  how  much  more  striking  and 
wonderful  is  its  fitness  to  answer  the  purposes — to  pro- 
mote the  ceaseless  advancement  of  his  intellectual  and 
moral  creation,  which  constitutes  the  worth,  the  dignity, 
and  happiness  of  his  boundless  dominions. 

Carbonic  acid  is  not  only  found  in  small  quantities  in 
every  part  of  the  atmosphere,  but  is  extensively  diffused 
through  the  mineral  kingdom,  especially  in  quarries  and 
mountains  of  limestone,  every  particle  of  which  contains 
a  portion  of  it  safely  laid  up  for  the  use  of  the  chemist 
and  artist,  whenever  he  needs  its  use,  or  wishes  to  prove 
its  existence. 

Besides  the  air  last  mentioned  as  existing  in  the  at- 
mosphere at  all  times  and  in  all  places,  several  others 
are  occasionally  found,  and  in  some  places  they  are  con- 
stantly forming  in  great  abundance,  among  which  is  one 
resembling  the  gas  used  for  lighting  cities. 

This  gas  is  produced  in  large  quantities  in  marshes, 
masses  of  stagnant  water,  and  in  large  cities,  where  a 
due  regard  to  cleanliness  is  not  observed  ;  and  is  the 
cause  of  sickness,  and  perhaps  of  malignant  fevers.  By 
moving  the  earth  in  the  bed  of  any  pond,  and  even  in 
most  streams  of  water,  bubbles  will  be  disengaged,  and 
rise  to  the  surface,  where  they  may  be  collected  in  bottles, 
and  by  applying  a  lighted  candle,  they  will  be  found  to 
be  combustible. 

It  is  much  lighter  than  common  air,  and  consequently 
rises  into  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  where 
it  is  frequently  exploded  by  electricity,  and  is  perhaps 
the  cause  of  shooting  stars  sometimes  observed  in  the 
heavens. 


16  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 

The  properties  and  operations  of  the  atmosphere  al- 
ready mentioned,  belong  more  to  the  several  ingredients 
which  compose  it,  than  to  the  whole  substance  as  a  mass. 
It  however  possesses  some  properties,  and  performs  many 
great  and  important  operations,  in  which  it  is  to  be 
viewed  as  one  body.  For  example,  every  particle  of  the 
atmosphere,  even  in  the  dryest  places  and  seasons,  con- 
tains a  portion  of  moisture.  By  the  power  of  absorbing 
and  retaining  this  substance,  it  performs  a  most  extensive 
and  important  service,  in  producing  action,  and  pre- 
serving order,  health,  and  life,  in  moving  and  living 
beings.  It  is  constantly  relieving  the  earth,  and  the 
numerous  bodies  upon  its  surface,  from  their  superfluous 
moisture.  It  raises  from  the  ocean,  by  the  silent  process 
of  evaporation,  as  much  water  as  flows  into  it,  by  the 
Amazon,  the  Mississippi,  the  Danube,  the  Ganges,  the 
Nile,  and  all  other  rivers  which  it  receives  into  its  bosom. 
Experiments  have  proved  that  during  twelve  hours  of  a 
summer's  day,  about  twenty-five  hogsheads  are  evaporated 
from  an  acre,  or  sixteen  thousand  hogsheads  from  a  square 
mile.  The  water  thus  taken  from  the  earth,  and  diffused 
through  the  atmosphere,  is  again  collected  in  clouds,  and 
when  the  air  can  no  longer  sustain  their  weight,  they 
fall  in  the  form  of  rain,  hail,  or  snow,  and  after  enliven- 
ing the  face  of  nature,  or  passing  into  the  ocean,  the 
same  vehicle  which  before  conducted  it  through  this 
round  of  services,  again  takes  it  up  to  repeat  the  process. 

Not  only  in  relieving  the  earth  from  its  superfluous 
moisture,  and  in  preparing  materials  for  refreshing 
showers,  as  well  as  the  raging  storm,  but  evaporation  is  a 
most  important  and  essential  process  for  the  chemist  in 
forming  his  salts  and  powders,  for  the  farmer  in  preserv- 
ing his  hay,  and  for  the  mechanic  and  housekeeper  in 
their  endless  and  nameless  operations,  for  preparing  the 
comforts  and  the  luxuries  of  civilized  and  refined  society. 
Besides  going  this  round  of  ceremonies  with  water,  in 
taking  it  from  the  earth,  in  diffusing  it  far  and  wide,  and 
again  collecting  it  in  clouds,  and  returning  it  to  refresh 
the  living  creation,  and  to  replenish  rivers  and  the  ocean ; 
the  atmosphere  transports  it,  while  in  clouds  or  vapor, 
from  continent  to  continent,  that  it  may  give  to  the  in- 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  17 


habitants  living  upon  the  four  quarters  of  the  globe,  a 
portion  of  its  genial  influence. 

Every  particle  of  the  atmosphere  contains  a  portion  of 
heat  as  well  as  moisture.  To  this  substance,  no  less  than 
to  water,  it  is  the  general  and  all  powerful  vehicle.  It 
is  constantly  transporting  heat  from  the  equator  to  the 
poles,  from  land  to  sea,  and  from  sea  to  land,  from  the 
valley  to  the  mountain,  and  from  hill  to  hill.  By  this 
office,  performed  by  the  air  in  these  great  operations 
of  nature,  the  heat  upon  the  earth  is  in  a  measure 
equalized.  The  deficiency  in  one  country  is  supplied 
from  the  excess  of  another.  The  intense  cold  of  one 
climate  is  softened  by  tempering  the  scorching  heat  of 
another  ;  and  by  the  equilibrium  thus  produced,  both  are 
rendered  productive  of  more  life  and  more  happiness. 

The  connexion  of  the  atmosphere  with  heat  is  the 
source  of  every  current  and  motion  it  receives,  from  the 
gentle  breeze  to  the  raging  hurricane.  The  theory  and 
the  different  kinds  of  winds,  all  of  which  are  nothing 
more  nor  less  than  the  atmosphere  in  motion,  and  aJl 
produced  by  the  same  cause,  might  seem  to  deserve  a 
full  explanation  in  this  place.  But  from  the  space 
allotted  to  the  present  number,  this  subject  must  be  de- 
ferred to  another.  It  is  difficult  in  this  connexion,  how- 
ever, to  avoid  the  remark,  that  the  expansibility  of  the  at- 
mosphere by  heat,  and  its  compressibility  by  cold  and 
pressure,  are  among  its  most  remarkable  and  important 
features,  and  distinguishes  this  and  other  airs  from  mat- 
ter of  every  kind,  either  in  a  solid  or  liquid  state.  Air  of 
every  kind  appears  to  be  capable  of  expansion  and  com- 
pression to  an  indefinite  degree.  This  property  belongs 
to  each  gas  separate,  and  to  several  combined. 

In  the  manufactory  of  soda  water,  one  hundred  and 
thirty  gallons  of  carbonic  acid  is  forced,  by  the  means 
of  a  condensing  pump,  into  a  cask,  of  the  contents  of  ten 
gallons,  six  of  which  are  occupied  by  water.  In  the 
fine  syringe,  the  atmosphere  is  suddenly  compressed  into 
so  small  a  space,  as  to  cause  the  oxigen  it  contains  to 
ignite  a  piece  of  cotton,  previously  prepared  by  moisten- 
ing it  with  water  highly  charged  with  saltpetre,  and  then 
thoroughly  dried.  When  ninetynine  hundredths  of  the 

VOL.  i. — NO.  i.  2  * 


18  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


air  contained  in  a  receiver,  is  removed  by  an  air  pump, 
the  remaining  one  hundredth  is  immediately  expanded  so 
as  to  occupy  the  space  which  was  before  occupied  by  the 
whole.  If  a  common  Florence  flask,  while  containing 
nothing  but  air,  be  heated  to  a  high  degree,  and  then  the 
mouth  immersed  in  water  while  it  is  suffered  to  cool,  the 
water  will  rise  to  occupy  almost  the  whole  contents  of  the 
flask. 

Familiar  examples  might  be  adduced,  almost  without 
number,  to  show  the  great  capability  airs  possess,  of  being 
expanded  and  compressed  to  an  unlimited  degree. 

And  every  kind  of  air  possesses  this  property  at  all 
temperatures.  In  this  respect,  gas  differs  from  vapor, 
which  in  other  respects  resemble  each  other.  All  vapors, 
whether  produced  from  liquids  or  solids,  are,  like  air, 
highly  elastic,  and  capable  of  great  expansion  and  com- 
pression. But  by  lowering  the  temperature  to  which 
they  are  exposed,  the  vapor  again  becomes  a  liquid,  or 
solid,  when  it  loses  its  elasticity,  and  its  compressibility. 
While  air  retains  both  at  all  temperatures,  and  in  all  sit- 
uations. 

This  peculiar  and  highly  interesting  property  of  all 
gases,  gives  to  the  atmosphere  some  of  its  most  important 
powers  and  uses.  It  is  evidently  essential  to  the  exist- 
ence of  winds,  and  to  every  motion  of  the  air,  unless  it 
may  be  in  a  slight  degree.  It  is  from  this  property,  that 
the  atmosphere  so  readily  gives  place  to  all  other  sub- 
stances passing  through  it.  Were  it  not  for  this,  we 
should  be  met  with  a  powerful  resistance,  whenever  we 
attempted  to  move  from  place  to  place.  This  is  the  ori- 
gin of  the  trade  winds,  occupying  about  sixty  degrees  of 
the  equatorial  regions  of  the  earth,  blowing  constantly 
from  east  to  west,  of  the  monsoons  blowing  six  months 
of  the  year  in  one  direction,  and  the  other  six  months 
directly  opposite,  of  the  deadly  simoom,  of  land  and  sea 
breezes,  of  the  most  variable  and  shortest  currents  of 
air,  of  the  gentle  breeze,  the  brisk  gale,  the  raging  tem- 
pest, the  sweeping  hurricane,  the  water  spout,  and  the 
tornado.  It  is  by  the  great  expansion  and  compression 
of  air,  that  ships  are  constantly  moving  from  continent 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  19 

to  continent,  that  the  noxious  vapors  of  cities  are  removed 
to  give  place  to  an  atmosphere  more  fresh  and  pure,  and 
that  it  constantly  preserves,  amidst  all  the  contaminating 
influences  to  which  it  is  exposed,  its  salubrious  and  vital 
energies. 

In  a  general  view  of  the  properties,  powers,  and  uses 
of  the  atmosphere,  of  the  essential  ingredients  which 
compose  it,  and  the  various  other  substances  it  absorbs 
and  wafts  in  its  currents,  the  numerous  odors  constantly 
meeting  us,  ought  not  to  be  overlooked.  This  class  of 
bodies  is  almost  infinite  in  variety,  which  are  divided  into 
atoms  so  minute,  that  the  fragrance  of  a  flower  diffuses 
its  agreeable  odor  into  every  particle  of  atmosphere,  to  a 
great  extent  around  it,  and  by  this,  adds  to  the  beauty  and 
sprightfulness,  the  sweetness  of  spring. 

Such  is  the  power  of  the  atmosphere,  and  the  great 
divisibility  of  matter,  that  it  sometimes  takes  up,  and 
carries  from  place  to  place,  substances  of  the  greatest 
density.  Even  the  heaviest  metals,  such  as  gold  and 
platina,  are  capable  of  being  reduced  to  so  fine  a  powder, 
as  to  be  supported  in  the  atmosphere,  and  inhaled  by  the 
lungs. 

The  limits  to  which  we  are  confined  in  our  view  of  a 
subject  so  vast  and  so  various  in  its  applications  and  uses, 
as  the  ocean  of  air  which  envelopes  our  globe,  have  re- 
quired us  to  be  brief.  In  many  cases  we  have  been  per- 
mitted merely  to  hint  at  a  subject,  whose  importance 
seemed  to  require  a  large  expansion.  In  none  have  we 
been  able  to  make  that  full,  minute,  and  varied  application 
to  practical  and  common  concerns,  and  especially  to  the 
moral  developement,  which  give  to  science  its  greatest 
utility,  interest,  and  sublimity.  Partially  to  answer  these 
important  purposes,  to  which  every  science  and  every 
kind  of  knowledge  ought  to  be  applied,  this  tract  will  be 
closed  by  a  few  questions  relating  to  the  subjects  present- 
ed in  the  preceding  pages. 

1.  Has  the  atmosphere  received  greater  or  less  atten- 
tion in  systems  of  instruction    than   its  importance  de- 
serves ? 

2.  Has  a  knowledge  of  the  ingredients  and  properties 


THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


of  the  atmosphere,  or  has  it  not,  a  relation  to  life  and 
health  ? 

3.  What  vital  process  in  the  animal  kingdom  is  con- 
ducted by  the  atmosphere  1 

4.  How  many  times  do  persons  commonly  respire  in  a 
minute  ? 

5.  About  how  much  air  is  received  into  the  lungs  at 
each  inhalation  1 

6.  Which  ingredient  in  the  atmosphere  is  most  abun- 
dant, oxigen  or  nitrogen  ? 

7.  Which  of  the  two  essential  ingredients  in  common 
air  is  most  active  ? 

8.  If  a  person  be  deprived  of  oxigen,  how  will  he  be 
affected  ? 

9.  Which  substance  is  essential  to  combustion,  oxigen, 
or  nitrogen  ? 

10.  Does  carbonic  acid  promote  or  destroy  combus- 
tion ? 

11.  Why  does  the  bellows  hasten  combustion  ? 

12.  Why  is  fire  preserved  by  covering  it  with  ashes  ? 

13.  Which  ingredient  in  the  atmosphere  conducts  the 
process  of  fermentation? 

14.  How  many  changes  does  vegetable  matter  undergo 
by  the  process  of  fermentation  ? 

15.  What  substance  is  produced  by  the  first  change, 
acid  or  sugar  ? 

16.  During  which  change  is  alcohol  formed,  the  second 
or  fourth? 

17.  In  what  does  fermentation,  if  continued,  always 
result  ? 

18.  Which  change  is  most  rapid,  the  second  or  third  1 

19.  How  should  liquids  undergoing  the  second  change 
be  treated,  excluded  from  the  air,  or  exposed  to  it  ? 

20.  When  a  liquid  is  undergoing  the  third  change,  or 
forming  into  vinegar,  does  the  fermentation  need  retard- 
ing or  hastening  ?  should  it  be  excluded  from  the  air  or 
exposed  to  it  ?  frequently  moved  or  remain  at  rest  1 

21.  Which  portion  of  the  air  has  the  agency  in  cor- 
roding metals,  and  producing  rust,  also  paints,  oxigen, 
or  nitrogen  ? 

22.  Which  metal  most  readily  combines  with  oxigen, 
gold  or  iron  ? 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  21 

23.  What  is  the  chemical  name  of  the  rust  of  iron  ? 
also  of  the  dross  of  lead  1 

24.  Why  does  covering  the  surface  of  metals,  such  as 
iron  or  brass,  with  varnish  or  oil,  prevent  their  corroding? 

25.  Of  what  substance  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth, 
except  air,  does  oxigen  constitute  a  part  1 

26.  Which  is  most  abundant  in  the  vegetable  kingdom, 
oxigen  or  nitrogen  1 

27.  Where  is  nitrogen  most  abundant,  in  animal  or 
vegetable  matter  ? 

28.  If  the  atmosphere  were  pure  oxigen,  would  it  be 
more  or  less  favorable  to  respiration  and  combustion  ? 

29.  What  appears  to  be  the  principal  use  of  nitrogen 
in  the  atmosphere  1 

30.  How  is  the  animal  system  affected  by  inhaling  pure 
oxigen  ? 

31.  How  is  animal  life  affected,  if  full  inhalations  of 
carbonic  acid  be  taken  into  the  lungs  ? 

32.  Do  the  lungs  throw  off  more  or  less  oxigen  than 
they  receive  ? 

33.  Do  they  throw  off  more  or  less  carbonic  acid  than 
they  receive  1 

34.  What  other  operations  in  nature,  except  respira- 
tion, produce  carbonic  acid  ? 

35.  What  substance  which  is  fatal  to  life,  is  thrown  off 
by  burning  charcoal  ? 

36.  Is  the  carbonic  acid  in  cider,  beer,  and  soda  water, 
favorable,  or  unfavorable  to  health  ? 

37.  What  natural  agents  are  employed  in  evaporation  1 

38.  What  finally  becomes  of  the  moisture  taken  up  and 
carried  off  by  the  atmosphere  ? 

39.  What  becomes  of  the  water  which  falls  into  the 
ocean,  through  the  medium  of  rivers,  rain,  &c. 

40.  Which  is  most  compressible,  air  or  water  ? 

41.  Does  heat  expand,  or  contract  air  1 

42.  What  is  the  most  powerful  vehicle  in  nature,  foi 
transporting  heat  and  moisture  ? 

43.  What  is  the  cause  of  winds,  and  all  motions  of  the 
atmosphere  ? 

44.  In  what  part  of  the  earth,  and  over  how  great  a 
space,  does  the  wind  blow  in  one  direction  through  the 
year  ? 


THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


45.  Is  the  action  of  the  atmosphere  upon  combustion, 
a  chemical  or  mechanical  process  ? 

46.  Is  the  oxidation  of  metals  a  chemical  or  mechani- 
cal operation  ? 

47.  Is  the  weight  of  the  atmosphere  a  chemical  or  me- 
chanical property  ? 

48.  In  how  many  divisions  may  all  the  properties  and 
operations  of  the  atmosphere  be  classed  1 

49.  Is  the  elasticity  of  air  a  chemical  or  mechanical 
property  ? 

50.  What   is   the  principal   agent  in   the   process  of 
bleaching  ? 

51.  What  acid  is  composed  of  three  parts  of  oxigen, 
and  one  of  nitrogen,  nitric,  or  sulphuric  ? 

52.  If  sulphur  be  burned  in  oxigen  gas,  what  acid  is 
the  result,  sulphuric,  or  muriatic  ? 

53.  How  is  phosphoric  acid  formed  ? 

54.  What  part  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  is  oxigen  1 

55.  Of  what  minerals  does  oxigen  constitute  a  part  ? 

56.  Is  any  substance  more  universally  diffused  through 
the  -material  creation  than  oxigen,  and  what  ? 


THIS  pamphlet  is  the  first  number  of  a  series  of '  tracts,' 
designed  as  instruments  for  operating  in  the  great  and 
common  cause  of  Popular  Education.  They  are  in- 
tended to  be  brought  within  the  comprehension,  and  to 
meet  the  wants  of  the  great  mass  of  the  community  ; 
especially  of  the  industrious  classes,  who  have  neither 
timo  nor  opportunities  to  devote  their  lives  to  intellectual 
pursuits.  It  is  hoped  they  will  prove  to  be  worthy  and 
agreeable  companions  in  every  family  circle,  and  that  they 
will  take  some  part  in  their  conversation,  and  if  so,  that 
they  will  enliven,  extend,  and  ennoble,  this  seat  and 
source  of  individual  and  national  character  and  happi- 
ness. 

Endeavors  will  be  made  to  render  these  sheets  welcome 
visitors  to  schools,  by  carrying  to  them  useful  and  enter- 
taining knowledge,  and  in  a  measure  to  relieve  those 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  23 


active,  sprightly,  intellectual,  little  beings,  which  com- 
pose them,  from  the  dull  monotony  of  common  school 
exercises. 

They  are  also  intended  to  furnish  profitable  subjects 
for  the  exercises  of  Lyceums,  which  may  be  introduced, 
explained,  and  enlarged  upon,  in  a  familiar  way,  by  those 
who  may  undertake  to  instruct  and  entertain  these  social 
assemblies. 

It  is  hoped  they  may  be  found  agreeable  companions, 
at  public  places  of  resort,  such  as  public  houses,  steam- 
boats, reading  rooms,  &c. 

To  answer  the  objects  above  proposed,  it  will  be  the 
earnest  desire  of  those  who  conduct  them,  to  give  them 
the  following  features. 

1.  To    have   them   contain  useful  knowledge,  in  the 
strictest  sense  of  the  word.     They  will  deal  more  with 
facts  than  theories  ;  more  with  settled  principles,  than 
doubtful    speculations ;    more    with    common    than    rare 
things ;  more  with  objects  around  us,  than  those  which 
may  or  may  not  exist  in  distant  parts  of  creation  ;  more 
with  the  application  of  the  well  known  properties  of  the 
materials  our  Creator  has  put  into  our  hands,  and  the 
principles  he  has  established  to  fit  them  for  our  use,  than 
to  establish  some  favorite  doctrine  in  a  system  of  meta- 
physics. 

2.  They  will  be  familiar.     Technicalities  and  labored 
verbiage  will  as  far  as  possible  be  avoided.      Attempts 
will    be   made  to   present  things,  properties,  principles, 
applications,  in  the  simplicity  of  nature,  and  not  through 
labyrinths  of  terms,  and  mazes  of  declarations. 

3.  They  will  be  practical.     Whatever  may  be  the  sub- 
jects introduced,  whether  the  physical  sciences,  natural 
history,  mathematics,  political  economy,  agriculture,  the 
mechanic  arts,  biography,  or  history,  they  will    have  a 
practical   bearing  upon  common   life  and   common   in- 
terests. 

4.  They  will  be  moral.     It  will  be  the  constant  aim  to 
awaken  and  elevate  moral  sentiment,  and  to  present  every- 
thing as  the  gift,  or  under  the  direction  of  a  great  and 
wise  Creator,  and  a  constant  and  boundless  Benefactor. 


APPARATUS 

FOR 

SCHOOLS,  LYCEUMS  AND  ACADEMIES. 


The  economy,  no  less  than  the  general  utility,  of  visible  illus- 
trations, is  no\v  universally  acknowledged.  It  has  had  the 
unanimous  assent,  so  for  as  known,  in  not  less  than  fifty  con- 
ventions of  teachers,  *t  which  were  present  more  than  ten 
thousand  persons.  Apparatus  is  more  economical  than  books, 
because  one  instrument  is  sufficient  for  a  school,  instead  of  an 
individual — because  it  is  more  durable — because  impressions 
received  through  the  eye,  especially  by  young  minds,  are  more 
clear,  more  rapid,  more  permanent,  more  agreeable,  and,  of 
course,  more  efficient,  man  those  through  the  ear. 

The  change  already  effected  in  Schools,  by  the  geometrical 
diagrams  and  solids,  is  unparalleled.  By  them  the  simple 
elements  of  Geometry,  from  an  abstruse  study  in  a  collegiate 
course,  have  liecome  the  most  agreeable,  as  well  as  the  most 
useful  branch  in  Infant  Schools,  and  to  a  great  extent  in  Com- 
mon Schools. 

A  manual,  and  three  sheets  of  diagrams,  one  of  which 
contains  the  manuscript  letters,  can  be  used  without  the  solids, 
either  in  Schools  or  families.  The  price  of  the  four  articles 
is  $0,50 ;  that  of  the  whole  of  the  geometricals  is  $4.  A  set 
of  common-school  apparatus,  embracing  the  geometricals,  one 
or  two  instruments  for  Arithmetic,  several  for  Geography,  and 
a  few  for  Astronomy,  is  $10.  For  Lyceums  and  Academies, 
philosophical  are  $15;  orrery,  $6;  tide  dial,  $4;  seasons,  $2; 
whole  'of  the  asWtoomicals.  $15:  a  convenient  chemical 
set,  $2r,. 

As  some  counterfeit  apparatus  has  been  made,  of  a  defec-  , 
tive  elmrarter,  and  offered  for  sale  under  Mr.  Holbrook's  name,c 
and  a  few  individuals  imposed  upon,  purchasers  will  do  well 
to  lie  minions  of  whom-  they  procure  it.  None  but  that  made 
under  Mr.  Holbrook's  direction  can  be  used  with  books  which 
are  prepared  and  preparing  to  illustrate  and  apply  it. 


CARTER,  HENDEE  AND  BABCOCK  have  the  appa- 
ratus above-named  for  sale,  with  a  large  assortment  of  Books 
designed  for  INFANT  and  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS,  for  LYCEUMS, 
ACADEMIES  and  elementary  and  practical  instruction  generally. 


SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS. 

NUMBER   II. 


GEOLOGY. 


GEOLOGY  is  a  modern  science.  It  is  but  little  more 
than  a  quarter  of  a  century  since  it  received  its  exist- 
ence, especially  in  our  own  country.  Before  that,  it 
was  neither  understood,  nor  mentioned  in  our  highest 
institutions  of  learning.  Our  most  learned  professors 
possessed  no  practical  knowledge  of  this  subject,  nor 
did  our  country  contain  any  source  from  which  it  could 
be  obtained.  They  were  unable  to  recognise  or  name 
the  most  common  mineral  in  the  streets.  Indeed,  most 
of  the  knowledge  in  Europe  upon  this  subject,  was 
drawn  from  conjecture,  rather  than  facts. 

Within  a  few  years  past,  however,  Geology  has  made 
greater  progress  than  was  ever  made  by  any  other  science 
in  the  same  length  of  time.  From  being  wholly  unknown 
in  our  colleges,  it  has  become  a  familiar  and  delightful 
subject  in  Infant  Schools.     Thousands  of  children  under 
ten  years  of  age,  are  now  better  practical   Geologists, 
than  any  individual  who  could  be  found  in  the  country 
thirty  years  ago.     They  have  not  collected  their  know- 
ledge from  their  school-rooms  or  their  books,  but  from 
actual    observation,  and   examination.       They  are  ac- 
quainted with  a  certain  rock  or  mineral  from  seeing  it, 
and  know  its  situation,  by  breaking  it  from  the  mass  to 
which  it  was  attached.       Their  school-rooms  and  their 
parlors  bear  infallible  testimony  both  of  their  knowledge 
and    their  industry.       Their  countenances  testify  that 
their  collections  are  the  price  of  blows  upon  the  rocks, 
rather  than  upon  their  backs.       Stripes  did  not  compel 
them  to  obtain  their  knowledge,  but  their  knowledge 

VOL.    1. NO.    II.  3 


26  GEOLOGY. 


induced  them  to  put  on  the  stripes.      Their  exercises 
to  obtain  it  were  permitted,  not  compelled.     Their  sub-   • 
ject  is  understood  rather  than  committed,  known  rather 
than  imagined. 

The  progress' of  this  subject  has  not  only  been  un- 
paralleled as  a  science,  but  its  application  to  Agricul- 
ture, to  Civil  Engineering,  and  to  many  of  the  arts,  has 
already  added  to  the  wealth  of  our  country,  to  a  vast 
amount.  It  has  brought  to  view  some  of  the  finest 
specimens  of  marble  upon  the  earth,  which  had  been 
used  by  farmers  for  common  enclosures  for  one  hundred 
and  fifty  years  without  being  known.  It  has  discovered 
valuable  quarries  of  building  materials,  within  a  few 
rods  of  walls  which  were  brought  from  a  distance  of  as 
many  miles.  It  has  discovered  the  material  from  which 
coperas  is  made,  and  led  to  the  art  of  manufacturing  it 
in  such  perfection,  and  at  so  cheap  a  rate,  as  to  put  an 
end  to  the  importation  of  that  article  so  indispensable, 
and  so  extensively  used  in  the  arts.  It  has  brought  to 
view  inexhaustible  deposits  of  the  material  for  the 
manufactory  of  the  beautiful  pigment  under  the  name 
of  chrome  yellow,  and  has  reduced  the  price  of  that 
useful  substance,  from  sixteen  dollars  to  fifty  cents  a 
pound.  It  has  led  to  the  establishment  of  a  manufactory 
of  epsom  salts,  where  seven  or  eight  hundred  tons  are 
made  in  a  year,  and  of  a  better  quality  than  can  be 
procured  from  any  establishment  across  the  Atlantic. 
The  numerous  and  abundant  sources  of  industry  and 
of  wealth  which  it  has  opened  to  our  country,  have  in- 
creased the  treasures  of  wealth,  no  less  than  those  of 
knowledge;  the  lovers  of  science  and  of  filthy  lucre, 
have  in  one  instance  been  gratified  by  drinking  at  the 
same  fountain. 

If  there  are  yet  those  who  need  to  ask  what  is  the 
object  of  this  practical,  interesting  and  sublime  science, 
they  can  be  informed  that  it  means  a  descriptiojytf  the 
earth;  and  is  hence  nearly  allied  to  geography.  Both  v 
sciences  have  not  however  the  same  province.  They 
do  not  describe  the  earth  in  the  same  points.  Geogra- 
phy, not  only  describes  the  great  divisions  and  natural 
features  of  the  earth,  but  the  political  and  civil  divisions, 


GEOLOGY.  I  27 

together  with  the  changes  and  improvements  made  upon 
its  surface  by  the  hands  of  men.  It  not  only  gives  an 
account  of  oceans,  continents,  islands  and  mountains, 
but  of  towns,  republics,  kingdoms  and  empires. 

It  is  not  the  object  of  Geology  to  give  the  number, 
names  or  situation  of  continents,  islands,  or  mountains, 
but  of  the  ingredients  of  which  they  are  composed,  and 
of  the  position  and  arrangement  in  which  they  are  placed. 
It  takes  no  notice  of  the  changes  which  have  been  pro- 
duced upon  the  earth  by  the  industry  or  the  ravages  of 
men,  but  describes  the  more  sublime  changes  it  has 
suffered,  by  the  agency  of  earthquakes  and  volcanoes; 
and  by  the  gradual  but  irresistible  hand  of  time. 

The  object  of  Geology  is  to  give  us  a  history,  not  of 
the  inhabitants  which  have  risen  and  fallen  upon  the 
earth,  but  of  the  earth  itself.  It  describes  its  original 
formation  and  present  structure,  with  the  gradual  and 
tremendous  changes  it  has  undergone,  since  it  came  from 
the  hand  of  its  Maker. 

It  must  be  acknowledged  that  our  means  of  nforma- 
tion  upon  this  subject  are  comparatively  scanty.  Neither 
history,  nor  the  present  appearance  of  the  earth,  informs 
us  with  any  degree  of  minuteness,  what  was  its  state, 
when  *  it  was  without  form  and  void,'  or  how  great  or 
general  were  its  changes,  when  the  '  windows  of  heaven 
opened,  and  the  fountains  of  the  great  deep  broken  up.' 
Nor  can  we  penetrate  beyond  a  few  feet  into  the  bowels 
of  the  earth,  to  ascertain  what  are  its  hidden  treasures, 
or  the  order  in  which  they  are  stored.  Neither  the 
ledges  of  mountains,  the  channels  of  rivers,  ravines, 
caves,  wells  or  any  other  excavation,  either  natural  or 
artificial,  give  us  any  opportunity  to  examine  the  mate- 
rials, structure  or  arrangement  of  our  globe,  but  a  few 
feet  below  its  surface. 

Although  most  of  the  incidents  in  the  history  of  our 
planet,  which  curiosity,  ever  upon  the  alert,  would  fain 
unfold,  are  surrounded  and  deeply  buried  in  the  gloom 
of  ignorance,  a  few  of  these  incidents  are  still  within  our 
reach,  and  are  too  interesting  and  too  important  to  be 
withheld  from  any  one  who  has  a  heart  to  feel,  or  a  mind 
to  perceive.  A  few  facts,  which  can  be  well  established, 


28  GEOLOGY. 

upon  a  subject  so  important  as  the  creation  and  history 
of  a  planet,  and  of  that  on  which  we  ourselves  are 
placed,  though  but  a  speck  in  creation,  can  hardly  fail 
to  light  up  the  curiosity  of  any  mind,  which  has  a  spark 
remaining.  To  state  these  facts,  as  they  are  learned 
from  history  and  observation,  is  the  principal  object  of 
the  present  number. 

CHAOTIC    OCEAN. 

The  first  well  established  fact  worthy  of  notice  re- 
specting the  history  of  our  planet,  is  that  there  was  a 
time  when  it  was  one  vast  ocean;  without  a  continent, 
an  island,  a  mountain,  a  rock,  a  metal,  or  a  particle  of 
solid  matter  upon  its  surface.  It  contained,  indeed,  the 
elements  of  all  solid  substances,  which  now  appear  so 
beautiful,  so  rich,  and  so  various  upon  its  surface;  but 
they  were  in  a  liquid  state — they  were  dissolved  by 
heat  or  water,  or  more  probably  by  both. 

Whatever  might  have  been  the  agent  or  agents,  which 
dissolved  and  held  in  solution  the  rocks,  islands,  moun- 
tains and  continents,  now  so  firm  and  so  lofty  upon  our 
globe,  the  fact  is  denied  or  doubted  by  no  one,  who  has 
resorted  for  information  to  either  of  the  two  great  vol- 
umes, the  book  of  nature,  or  the  book  of  revelation. 
The  sublime  and  interesting  account  found  in  the  first 
chapter  of  Genesis  of  the  creation  of  our  earth,  is 
grounded  upon  the  fact,  that  it  was  once  a  vast  and  gen- 
eral ocean.  Such  it  must  have  been  when  it  was  without 
form  and  void,  and  darkness  was  upon  the  face  of  the 
deep,  and  the  spirit  of  God  moved  upon  the  face  of  the 
waters,  and  commanded  dry  land  to  appear.  These 
statements  imply,  with  a  clearness  little  short  of  a  direct 
declaration,  that  there  was  a  time,  v/hen  our  earth  was  a 
vast  deep  —  one  great  body  of  water  —  when  dryland 
had  not  appeared. 

This  interesting  fact,  so  clearly  implied  in  the  book 
of  revelation,  is  fully  corroborated  in  the  older  volume, 
the  book  of  nature.  The  ocean  now  holding  in  solution 
many,  perhaps  most  of  the  ingredients  which  constitute 
the  solid  and  rocky  masses  —  volcanoes  which  dissolve 
the  body  of  mountains  and  pour  them  from  their 


GEOLOGY.  29 

heights  in  a  liquid  form,  so  as  to  lay  in  ruins  the  fairest 
plains  and  cities  below,  —  ledges  beautifully  studded 
with  crystals,  and  mountains  intersected  by  seams  of 
copper,  tin,  silver  and  gold,  bear  constant  and  infallible 
testimony,  not  merely  to  the  possibility,  but  the  certainty, 
that  the  most  solid  substances  were  once  in  a  state  of 
solution,  and  that  our  planet  has  been  shaken  to  its 
centre  by  the  war  of  its  elements. 

CONSTANT    CHANGES. 

History  of  the  past,  and  observation  of  the  present, 
unite  their  testimony  to  the  fact,  that  the  changes  the 
earth  has  undergone  since  it  came  from  the  hand  of  its 
Maker,  have  been  constant,  and  to  a  great  extent 
gradual.  Whatever  construction  shall  be  put  upon  the 
word  day,  as  used  in  the  only  history  we  have  of  the 
creation  of  our  earth,  or  however  great  might  have 
been  the  changes  it  suffered  during  the  six  days  there 
mentioned,  no  one  can  deny  or  doubt,  that  great  and 
constant  changes  have  taken  place  upon  its  surface 
since  the  period  there  referred  to.  The  changes  to 
which  it  is  daily  subject  at  the  present  time,  must  be 
visible  to  the  most  careless  observer.  The  gradual  but 
powerful  and  irresistible  hand  of  time,  even  in  the  short 
space  of  '  threescore  years  and  ten,'  sometimes  gives 
to  extensive  districts  a  new  aspect  and  a  new  character. 
In  many  situations,  rocks  are  constantly  forming,  in 
others  they  are  in  a  state  of  decomposition;  in  one  case 
the  land  is  daily  encroaching  upon  the  sea,  in  another, 
it  is  carried  into  the  ocean,  and  gives  place  to  a  bay  or 
harbor.  Volcanoes  are  pouring  forth  from  the  depths  of 
mountains  melted  lava,  which  by  a  sluggish  but  a  pow- 
erful and  awful  momentum,  carry  destruction  in  their 
course,  and  bury  flourishing  cities  in  ruins,  giving  no 
warning  to  their  inhabitants  to  flee  from  their  danger. 
While  in  one  case  mountains  are  throwing  from  their 
summits  their  own  contents  into  the  valleys  beneath,  in 
another  the  ocean  is  throwing  up  islands  from  its  depths. 
In  some  instances,  islands  have  arisen  out  of  the  sea  in 
a  night. 

VOL.  i. — NO.  n.         3* 


30 


ORDER   OF    CREATION. 


The  general  order  of  time  in  which  the  earth  with  its 
furniture  and  its  inhabitants  came  to  its  present  form,  is 
sufficiently  manifest  from  the  only  authentic  history  we 
have  of  its  creation,  from  reason,  and  from  observation. 
The  first  step  which  was  taken  to  change  the  original 
chaos  into  a  convenient  dwelling-place  for  living,  acting, 
and  intelligent  beings,  was  the  formation  of  dry  land. 
That  was  necessary  to  provide  for  the  accommodation 
of  animal  and  vegetable  life.  When  provision  was 
made  for  the  existence  and  support  of  the  vegetable 
kingdom,  ( the  earth  brought  forth  grass  and  herb 
yielding  seed  after  their  kind,  and  the  tree  yielding 
fruit  after  his  kind,  whose  seed  was  in  itself  after  his 
kind.' 

The  creation,  and  continued  production  of  the  vege- 
table kingdom,  made  provision  for  the  animal.  Then 
the  earth  brought  forth  cattle  that  walk  upon  the  earth, 
fowls  that  fly  in  the  firmament  of  heaven,  reptiles  that 
creep  in  the  dust,  and  fishes  that  move  in  the  waters  i 
and  each  after  his  kind. 

But  the  tenant  for  whom  the  earth,  with  all  its  pro- 
ductions of  animal  and  vegetable  life,  and  so  richly 
provided  with  furniture  of  a  thousand  kinds,  was  not 
yet  created.  His  creation  was  to  close  this  august  work 
of  the  great  Architect  of  the  universe.  Man  was  not 
formed  and  placed  upon  the  earth,  until  the  earth  was 
fitted  for  his  reception,  his  convenience,  and  his  happi- 
ness—  until  two  great  lights  were  formed,  one  to  rule 
the  day,  and  the  other  to  rule  the  night,  and  the  stars 
also  —  until  the  waters  which  were  under  the  firmament 
were  divided  from  those  above  the  firmament,  and 
gathered  together  in  one  place,  and  dry  land  appeared 
—  until  grass,  herbs,  and  trees  yielded  seed  and  fruit 
after  their  kind,  and  cattle,  the  fowls  of  heaven,  every 
creeping  tiling,  and  every  living  creature  which  moves 
in  the  waters,  were,  formed,  and  made  to  produce  others 
after  their  kind,  ajid  put  in  subjection  to  the  lord  of  this 
lower  creation. 

Such  is  the  general  order  in  the  work  of  creation,  as 


GEOI.OGT,  31 


learned  from  the  Bible,  from  reason  and  from  observa- 
tion; and  yet  we  have  the  strongest  evidence,  that  this 
order  was  not  strictly  and  minutely  pursued  through  the 
whole  process  of  bringing  the  earth  into  the  state  in 
which  it  is  now  presented  to  our  view.  The  whole  of 
the  mineral  kingdom,  all  rocks  and  metals,  soils  and 
mountains,  were  not  completed  before  the  creation  of 
the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms  were  commenced. 
So  far  from  it,  rocks,  soils,  and  metals,  are  daily  form- 
ing at  the  present  time.  In  many  instances,  vegeta- 
bles and  animals  are  deposited  in  solid  rocks  far  below 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  Nay,  whole  mountains  of  a 
great  height,  and  hundreds  of  miles  in  extent,  are  com- 
posed of  little  else  than  the  relics  of  animals.  The 
greater  part  of  these  animals  were  evidently  different 
kinds  of  shell  fish.  But  fishes,  of  the  kind  that  swim, 
are  also  found  inclosed  in  solid  rocks.  In  one  instance, 
the  relics  of  one  fish  were  found  in  the  mouth  of  another, 
apparently  in  the  act  of  struggling  for  his  freedom,  when 
both  captive  and  captor  were  suddenly  arrested,  and 
confined,  where  they  closed  their  struggles  and  their 
lives  together;  and  were  afterwards  converted  into  stone. 
In  another  instance,  one  hundred  and  sixteen  different 
kinds  offish  were  foond  petrified  within  a  short  distance. 
It  has  been  remarked,  that  fishes  had  probably  met  in 
general  assembly,  and  were  taken  when  in  the  act  of 
legislating. 

In  excavating  the  section  of  the  Erie  canal  at  Lock- 
port,  after  descending  twenty  feet  into  solid  rock,  several 
rattlesnakes  were  found  with  the  whole  form,  though  in 
the  state  of  stone,  almost  precisely  retained.  At  the  same 
place  and  nearly  the  same  depth,  a  toad  was  taken  from 
the  solid  rock,  which  when  found  was  in  a  torpid  state, 
which  he  had  retained  perhaps  for  thousands  of  years, 
but  when  exposed  to  air  and  heat  soon  gave  indications 
of  life,  and  after  a  short  time  gained  strength  enough  to 
hop,  but  after  a  few  hops  closed  his  existence  forever. 

Not  many  years  since,  in  the  vicinity  of  Paris,  there 
was  found  imbedded  in  solid  rock,  and  forty  feet  below 
its  surface,  a  board  several  feet  long  and  eight  or  nine 
inches  wide.  At  the  same  place  a  hammer  was  found, 


92  GEOLOGY. 

the  handle  of  which,  with  the  board  was  petrified,  but 
the  hammer  being  of  iron,  retained  its  natural  state. 

These  are  a  few  instances,  among  thousands,  which 
might  be  mentioned,  to  prove  that  the  changes  our  earth 
has  undergone,  have  been  gradual  and  constant,  and  that 
minerals,  rocks  and  soils,  and  even  mountains  have  been 
formed  since  the  creation  both  of  the  vegetable  and 
animal  kingdoms  commenced,  and  even  after  man  was 
formed,  and  had  made  some  advances  in  the  arts  of 
civilization.  Indeed  no  one  can  doubt  for  a  moment, 
who  has  paid  the  least  attention  to  the  subject,  that  our 
globe  has  been  subject  to  constant  and  important 
changes  from  the  time  that  the  materials  of  which  it  is 
composed  were  formed  out  of  nothing,  until  the  present 
moment.  And  these  changes  which  come  within  our 
knowledge  are  so  great,  as  to  afford  strong  evidence 
that  the  earth  could  not  have  existed  for  a  much  longer 
period  than  that  assigned  by  Moses. 

AGES    OF    ROCKS. 

From  views  and  facts  already  presented,  it  must  be 
concluded  that  rocks  and  mountains  have  different  ages. 
Some  have  existed  for  six  thousand  years,  while  others 
are  at  this  moment  in  a  process  of  formation.  And  there 
is  good  reason  to  believe,  that  every  moment  during  the 
whole  of  this  period,  these  formations  have  been  going  on. 

We  not  only  know  that  rocks  have  different  ages,  but 
we  know  which  are  oldest.  All  geologists  unite  in  the 
opinion,  that  granite  was  the  first  solid  substance  formed 
from  the  great  chaotic  ocean  ;  and  that  the  coarsest 
masses  of  this  rock  are  older  than  those  of  a  finer 
texture. 

Next  in  age  to  granite,  is  gneiss,  consisting  of  the 
same  ingredients,  but  of  a  finer  texture  and  a  more 
slaty  character. 

Mica  slate  is  considered  by  most  geologists  as  the 
third  rock  in  age. 

Lime  has  be^n  forming  in  all  ages  of  the  world. 
Some  deposits  of  limestone  are  older  than  the  most  re- 
cent granite,  while  others  are  forming  at  the  present 
moment.  The  oldest  specimens  are  coarse  and  of  a 


33 


crystaline  structure;  the  most  recent  is  fine  or  com- 
pact in  its  texture,  and  destitute  of  every  appearance 
of  crystalization.  A  bed  of  the  most  ancient  limestone 
is  found  in  Bolton,  Massachusetts.  In  the  western  part 
of  New  York,  deposits  of  the  same  rock  arc  constantly 
forming  at  the  present  time. 


ELEMENTS    OF    ROCKS. 


Notwithstanding  the  rich  and  endless  variety  in  the 
external  appearance  of  rocks,  their  elements  are  few 
and  simple;  and  this  apparent  and  beautiful  variety  is 
owing  more  to  the  proportion  and  arrangement  of  the 
ingredients  which  compose  them,  than  to  their  number 
or  variety. 

Nine  simple  minerals  have  been  supposed,  by  many 
geologists,  to  be  the  elementary  substances  of  which 
all  rocks  are  composed.  And  it  is  well  known,  that 
four  or  five  of  these,  constitute  by  far  the  greatest  part 
of  rocky  and  mountain  masses,  and  that  more  than  half 
both  of  rocks  and  soils,  are  formed  from  two  of  them. 

The  names  of  these  simple  minerals,  sometimes  called 
the  geological  alphabet,  are  quartz,  felspar,  mica,  horn- 
blende, lime,  argillite,  (common  slate,)  gypsum,  talc, 
and  chlorite.  The  two  first  are  the  most  common  and 
most  abundant  materials  which  compose  the  solid  mass 
of  our  earth.  Of  the  highest  and  most  extensive  moun- 
tains upon  our  globe,  they  are  the  principal,  and  to  some 
extent,  the  only  ingredients.  They  are  also,  the  essen- 
tial elements  of  soils,  and  upon  the  proper  mixture  of 
quartz  and  felspar,  or  of  silex  and  alumine,  (sand  and 
clay,)  the  ultimate  principles  found  in  these  two  mine- 
rals, the  fertility  of  soils  depends. 

These  two  abundant  and  important  minerals  in  many 
instances,  very  nearly  resemble  each  other,  tfiough  a 
little  experience  will  enable  any  one  to  distinguish  them. 
Quartz  is  harder  than  felspar,  and  much  more  various  in 
its  appearance.  It  is  of  every  shade  of  color  from 
nearly  black  to  milk  white.  The  white  pebbles  so 
common  in  the  streets  and  by  tUft; way-side,  frequently 
known  by  the  name  of  flint-stone>,  ate  a  common  species 
of  quartz.  Gun-flint  is  another.  Sometimes  it  is 


34  GEOLOGY. 

transparent  and  perfectly  crystalized,  when  it  is  im- 
properly called  diamond.  Diamond  rocks  and  hills  are 
known  in  many  towns  in  almost  every  section  of  our 
country.  The  diamond  is  found  but  in  two  or  three 
places  upon  the  earth. 

Crystalized  quartz  is  sometimes  of  a  purple  color, 
when  it  is  called  amethyst.  Jasper,  carneleon,  calcedony , 
opal,  and  several  other  precious  stones,  are  ranked  in 
the  family  of  quartz. 

Felspar  is  generally  white  or  of  a  light  color,  some- 
times yellowish,  light  red,  or  green,  seldom  of  a  dark 
color.  Its  fracture  differs  from  that  of  quartz,  as  it 
breaks  in  small  even  surfaces  or  plates,  somewhat  re- 
sembling steps.  A  strong  light  thrown  upon  a  recent 
fracture,  gives  it  a  peculiar  indescribable  lustre,  by 
which  it  can  always  be  distinguished  from  quartz. 

The  two  minerals  are  not  only  useful  as  constituting 
the  greater  part  of  soils,  rocks,  and  mountains,  but  for 
an  important  purpose  to  which  each  is  applied  in  the 
arts.  Quartz  is  the  essential,  and  almost  only  ingredi- 
ent used  in  the  manufactory  of  glass,  whether  for  win- 
dows, decanters,  tumblers,  bottles,  or  any  other  purpose. 
Felspar  is  always  used  in  the  manufactory  of  porcelain 
or  china  ware.  The  substance  known  by  the  name  of 
kaolin,  or  porcelain  clay,  used  both  in  China  and  this 
country  in  the  manufactory  of  porcelain,  is  decomposed 
felspar. 

Mica,  frequently  but  improperly  called  isinglass,  is 
extensively  associated  with  the  two  simple  minerals 
already  described  in  the  structure  of  rocks.  This  min- 
eral is  sometimes  found  in  plates  two  feet  in  diameter, 
but  much  more  commonly  in  fine  scales  but  little  larger 
than  the  head  of  a  pin.  It  is  commonly  white,  but 
sometimes  black,  and  always  more  or  less  transparent. 

In  some  places,  especially  in  Muscovy,  mica  is  used 
for  the  windows  of  houses,  and  is  hence  called  Muscovy 
glass.  It  is  also  used  for  lanterns,  and  some  purposes 
aboard  of  ships,  where  glass  would  be  liable  to  break. 

STRATA    OF    ROCKS. 

Into  the  oldest  and  most  common  rocks  upon  the 
earth,  no  other  minerals  enter  in  considerable  quantities 


GEOLOGY. 


but  the  three  just  described.  They  are  the  essential, 
and  almost  only  ingredients  in  granite,  gneiss,  and  mica 
slate.  In  the  oldest  specimens  of  granite,  usually  of  a 
coarse  texture,  the  three  ingredients  being  in  large 
masses,  the  felspar  is  most  abundant.  The  mica,  fre- 
quently in  large  plates,  is  dispersed  through  the  mass 
in  every  possible  direction.  As  the  process  of  forma- 
tion continued,  the  felspar  became  less  abundant,  and 
the  mica  more  regular  in  its  arrangement.  The  rock 
hence  passed  from  coarse  to  fine  granite,  and  from  fine 
granite  into  gneiss.  The  last  is  slaty  granite.  Both 
contain  the  same  ingredients,  and  their  principal  differ- 
ence is  in  the  proportion,  arrangement,  and  texture  of 
their  ingredients.  As  the  formation  of  gneiss  con- 
tinued, the  felspar  still  continued  to  diminish,  until  it 
wholly  disappeared.  When  the  rock  is  formed,  it  is  com- 
posed of  quartz  and  mica  finely  mixed,  and  of  a  slaty 
structure,  and  bears  the  name  of  mica  slate. 

This  rock  differs  from  gneiss,  not  only  in  being  desti- 
tute of  felspar,  but  in  possessing  a  finer 'texture,  and  a 
smooth,  but  frequently  an  undulating  surface. 

As  these  three  strata  of  rocks  are  more  common  than 
any  other  upon  the  surface  of  the  earth,  they  are  used 
for  a  greater  variety  of  common  purposes,  l»y  practical 
men.  They  are  extensively  used  by  farmers  for  en- 
closing their  fields,  and  by  civil  engineers  in  the  con- 
struction of  roads,  bridges,  wharves,  dams,  canals, 
railways,  the  walls  of  buildings,  Sec,  &c. 

Nearly  allied  to  granite,  and  frequently  associated 
with  it  is  sienite.  In  this  rock,  hornblende  takes  the 
place  of  mica  in  granite  ;  the  mass  is  of  course  com- 
posed of  quartz,  felspar,  and  hornblende.  The  simple 
mineral  last  named,  sometimes  resembles  black  mica  in 
its  external  appearance,  but  is  much  harder  and  can  be 
readily  distinguished  from  it,  by  its  resisting  the  point 
of  a  knife,  while  mica  is  readily  separated  into  thin 
scales,  by  the  application  of  any  pointed  instrument. 

Sienite  is  found  in  great  abundance  in  the  vicinity  of 
Boston,  where  it  is  at  present  the  most  common  mate- 
rial for  the  walls  of  houses  and  other  purposes  in 
architecture.  In  Quincy,  and  two  or  three  other  towns 


36  fiF.OLOGV. 

in  the  same  vicinity,  are  deposits  of  this  useful  and 
beautiful  rock,  in  sufficient  quantities  for  building  a 
thousand  cities  of  the  size  of  Boston. 

In  these  deposits,  the  sienite  uniformly  consists  of 
three  ingredients,  though  in  others,  it  is  formed  of  two, 
the  quartz  being  wanting.  The  three  ingredients  in 
this  useful  material,  will  be  readily  seen  by  a  glance  at 
the  front  of  the  Tremont  House,  where  three  colors  are 
distinctly  visible  at  the  distance  of  several  rods.  The 
red  and  most  abundant  ingredient  is  felspar;  the  white, 
quartz;  and  the  black  and  least  abundant  is  hornblende. 
They  are  equally  distinct  in  numerous  other  buildings 
in  almost  every  part  of  the  city  of  Boston. 

Greenstone,  or  trap  rock,  is  composed  of  hornblende 
and  felspar.  The  former  always  predominates,  and 
commonly  constitutes  almost  the  whole  mass. 

This  rock  contains  a  large  portion  of  iron,  and  is 
hence  heavy,  hard,  and  more  difficult  to  break  than  any 
other  stratum.  It  is,  however,  intersected  by  numerous 
scams,  by  which  it  is  separated  into  convenient  masses 
for  erecting  the  walls  of  houses,  for  which  it  is  exten- 
sively used  in  New  Haven,  Edinburgh,  and  many  other 
places,  where  it  is  found  in  abundance. 

Two  extensive  ranges  of  mountains  in  New  England, 
commence  with  the  East  and  West  Rocks,  about  two 
miles  from  the  city  of  New  Haven,  both  of  which  are 
greenstone.  One  continues  in  the  eastern  range  as  far 
as  Greenfield,  a  part  of  which  are  Mount  Holyoke  and 
Mount  Tom.  The  other  range  passes  farther  west,  and 
extends  to  the  Green  Mountains  in  Vermont. 

The  Giant's  Causeway  is  a  hornblende  rock,  called 
basalt. 

Sandstone  js  associated  with  greenstone,  and  is  always 
placed  beneath  it,  when  they  occur  together. 

This  rock,  as  its  name  denotes,  is  composed  of  sand, 
or  grains  of  quartz  and  felspar,  with  fine  scales  of  mica 
sometimes  dispersed  through  the  mass,  and  cemented 
with  clay  and  the  oxide  of  iron. 

Many  thousand  tons  of  this  rock  have  been  car- 
ried to  Boston  from  Chatham,  opposite  to  Middletown, 
on  the  Connecticut  river,  and  more  or  less  is  transported 


GEOLOGT.  37 


from  the  same  place  into  every  seaport  from  New  Or- 
leans to  Eastport.  It  is  used  for  the  underpinning  of 
houses,  door  steps,  hearths,  jambs,  &c,  &c. 

Graywacke,  in  some  of  its  deposits,  resembles  sand- 
stone. But  besides  embracing  recks  composed  of 
grains,  it  extends  to  those  consisting  of  large  pebbles, 
sometimes  a  foot  in  diameter,  and  frequently  so  loosely 
cemented,  as  to  fall  to  pieces  from  the  effects  of  the 
weather,  and  other  gradual  operations  of  time. 

An  extensive  and  most  singular  deposit  of  graywacke 
is  found  nearly  the  whole  distance  from  Boston  to  Provi- 
dence. A  circumstance  respecting  this  deposit  of 
graywacke  coincides  with  that  in  another  on  the  heights 
of  Catskill  mountains.  The  circumstance  is,  that  the 
highest  points  of  elevation  in  both  cases,  consist  of  the 
coarsest  pebbles.  In  the  descent,  both  rocks  become 
finer  and  more  compact  in  their  texture,  until  they 
finally  pass  into  slate. 

Another  most  singular  and  unaccountable  fact,  which 
is  particularly  striking  in  the  New  England  deposit  is, 
that  ledges  are  intersected  by  numerous  seams,  which 
cut,  not  only  the  largest  pebbles,  but  the  finest  grains, 
leaving  a  surface  almost  as  smooth  as  if  it  were  polished. 
This  fact  may  be  witnessed  in  the  numerous  walls  built 
of  this  material  in  Dorchester  and  Roxbury,  which  by 
the  aid  of  these  seams  present  an  even  surface  in  front, 
notwithstanding  the  general  fracture  of  the  rock  is  un- 
commonly ragged  and  uneven. 

The  fact  is  stated  merely,  any  may  explain  it  who 
are  able. 

Some  of  the  finest  slates,  and  even  the  material  of 
which  hones  are  composed,  are  classed  by  geologists 
under  the  stratum  of  graywacke. 

Argillite,  or  common  slate,  used  in  schools  and  for 
the  roofs  of  houses,  is  an  abundant  rock,  but  less  com- 
mon than  most  of  those  already  described.  Extensive 
ranges  of  it  exist  in  Vermont,  which  furnished  during 
the  last  war,  large  quantities  of  a  good  quality  for  the 
roofs  of  houses.  But  as  it  is  less  expensive  transporting 
it  across  the  Atlantic,  than  down  the  Connecticut,  the 

VOL.  i. — NO.  ii.         4 


38  GEOLOGT. 

greater  part  now  used  both  for  schools  and  roofs,  is 
r ought  from  Wales. 

This  rock  is  composed  principally  of  clay,  and  hence 
soils,  where  it  abounds,  are  of  the  same  character.  If 
argillite  is  put  in  a  road  where  it  will  be  finely  pulve- 
rized by  wheels,  it  forms  a  mass  differing  but  little  from 
a  bed  of  clay. 

This  rock  is  neither  the  most  ancient,  nor  the  most 
recent.  It  was  evidently  formed  after  the  primitive 
limestone,  but  previously  to  the  secondary  deposits  of 
the  same  rock. 

Lime  has  already  been  mentioned,  both  as  an  ancient 
and  a  modern  rock.  A  few  ancient  deposits  are  found 
in  New  England.  Numerous  and  almost  boundless 
deposits  of  modern  or  secondary  limestone,  are  found  in 
New  York,  and  States  still  more  west  and  south.  The 
masses  found  in  New  England  are  generally  of  a  coarse 
crystalline  structure,  those  at  the  west  and  south,  more 
compact,  and  they  frequently  contain  relics  of  animals 
and  vegetables  ;  indeed,  in  some  instances,  the  whole 
mass  of  a  mountain  appears  to  be  little  else  than  an 
aggregation  of  animal  relics. 

Of  no  rock  is  there  probably  a  greater  variety  than 
of  limestone.  It  is  said  there  are  nearly  two  hundred 
varieties  of  marble,  all  of  which  are  limestone.  The 
deposits  which  do  not  bear  the  name  of  marble,  probably 
present  an  equal  variety.  Chalk  is,  strictly  speaking, 
limestone,  as  it  is  composed  of  the  same  ingredients, 
and  in  the  same  proportion  with  the  quarries  wrought 
for  marble,  and  for  the  more  common  purposes  of  lime. 

The  Housatonic  range  of  limestone  is  perhaps  the 
most  extensive  in  New  England.  It  commences  in 
Milford,  near  the  mouth  of  the  river,  and  extends  with 
some  intermissions  quite  to  its  head,  and  even  beyond 
to  the  St  Lawrence  river,  if  not  into  Canada.  The 
Stockbridge  and  Middlebury  marble,  are  in  this  range. 
In  Bolton,  and  Boxborough,  the  town  north,  are  da- 
posits  of  moderate  extent.  In  Smithfield,  Rhode  Island, 
is  a  quarry,  from  which  lime  of  the  finest  quality  is  pro- 
cured in  great  quantities.  In  Stoneham,  twelve  miles 
north  of  Boston,  is  a  small  deposit.  This  resembles 


GEOLOtiY.  39 

the  statuary  marble.  From  Thomastown,  Maine,  both 
marble  and  common  lime  are  procured  for  Boston  mar- 
ket in  abundance.  In  the  western  part  of  New  Eng- 
land, and  the  eastern  part  of  New  York,  is  an  extensive 
range,  less  ancient,  than  those  already  mentioned,  and 
less  recent  than  that  which  constitutes  the  principal 
rock  in  the  western  part  of  New  York,  and  the  country 
between  that  and  the  Mississippi. 

Gypsum,  (plaster  of  Paris,)  is  one  of  those  rocks 
which  are  found  in  great  abundance  in  a  few  places 
upon  the  earth,  but  are  not  common.  Nova  Scotia, 
the  western  part  of  New  York,  the  vicinity  of  Paris, 
France,  and  a  few  other  places,  contain  inexhaustible 
deposits  of  it.  None  of  consequence  has  yet  been 
discovered  in  New  England. 

Several  varieties  of  this  rock  are  found  in  abundance, 
some  of  which  are  transparent,  crystallized,  and  beauti- 
ful. A  common  and  abundant  variety  of  crystallized 
gypsum  is  called  selenite,  which  is  in  transparent  plates 
or  laminae,  and  resembles  mica,  and  with  that  has  been 
called  isinglass.  Their  resemblance,  however,  is  mere- 
ly in  their  external  appearance,  their  elements  being 
entirely  different.  Mica  is  also  highly  elastic,  while 
selenite  is  not  so,  and  cannot  be  bent  without  breaking. 

Gypsum  has  numerous  uses,  the  most  important  of 
which  is  in  agriculture.  It  has  the  power  of  entirely 
changing  the  character  of  some  soils,  and  rendering  the 
most  barren,  gravelly  plains  highly  fertile.  It  is  more 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  clover  than  any  other  plant, 
but  promotes  the  growth  of  potatoes,  Indian  corn,  and 
on  some  soils,  of  winter  grain.  It  is  also  used  for  vari- 
ous ornamental  purposes  as  a  plaster. 

The  ingredients  of  which  gypsum  is  composed,  are 
lime,  sulphuric  acid,  and  water. 

Soapstone  is  composed  of  talc,  with  a  small  mixture  of 
quartz.  Both  talc,  and  the  rock  which  it  composes  are 
soft,  and  easily  wrought  into  any  shape  required  by 
their  numerous  uses.  This  rock  is  hewn  into  blocks  by 
an  axe,  separated  into  slabs  by  a  common  saw-mill,  or  a 
hand-saw,  turned  into  cylinders  or  other  circular  forms 
by  a  lathe,  and  smoothed  by  a  plane. 


40  GEOLOGY. 


The  ease  with  which  soapstone  is  wrought,  the  hand- 
some polish  it  is  capable  of  receiving,  and  its  power  of 
resisting  the  effects  of  heat  upon  most  other  rocks,  ren- 
der it  extensively  useful  in  the  arts.  Besides  its  vari- 
ous uses  in  connexion  with  heat,  it  is  preferable  to  any 
other  material  yet  discovered  for  cylinders,  used  in 
manufactories  for  dressing  yarn  to  fit  it  for  the  loom. 
The  powder  of  this  stone  when  mixed  with  oil,  has 
recently  been  applied  to  great  advantage  to  the  gudgeons 
of  wheels,  axletrees  of  carriages,  and  to  various  other 
purposes  of  a  similar  kind. 

Vermont  and  New  Hampshire  furnish  soapstone  in 
great  abundance,  and  of  various  qualities.  A  quarry 
in  Francestown,  in  the  southern  part  of  New  Hamp- 
ahire,  has  furnished  more  for  Boston  market  and  the 
various  manufactories  in  New  England,  than  any  other 
deposit.  Orford,  New  Hampshire,  contains  a  beautiful 
variety.  Several  towns  in  Vermont,  near  the  Connecti- 
cut river,  contain  it  in  great  abundance,  and  of  a  good 
quality. 

When  a  rock  of  a  homogeneous  base  has  crystals  of 
a  certain  character  dispersed  through  the  mass,  it  is 
called  poi'phyry.  The  base  is  more  commonly  some 
variety  of  hornblende  rock,  but  sometimes  .<jlay-slate, 
compact  felspar,  or  graywacke. 

The  crystals  usually  consist  of  felspar  and  quartz, 
the  former  in  prisms,  the  latter  in  pyramids,  or  small 
nadules. 

The  color  of  porphyry  depends  upon  the  base,  and 
the  quantity  of  crystals  dispersed  through  it.  Some- 
times the  base  is  dark  green,  and  even  black,  and  the 
imbedded  crystals  small.  Other  specimens  are  com- 
posed of  a  lighter  base  and  more  numerous  and  larger 
crystals. 

Some  varieties  of  porphyry  receive  a  beautiful  polish, 
when  it  furnishes  a  valuable  material  for  tables,  mantel- 
pieces, and  many  smaller  ornaments,  such  as  butter 
plates,  snuff-boxes,  kc. 

Vast  deposits  of  this  rock  are  found  at  Nahant, 
Lynn,  Maiden,  Marblehead,  Salem,  Canton,  and 
several  other  places  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston.  In 


GEOLOGY.  41 


these  localities,  there  is  a  great  variety,  and  some  spe- 
cimens receive  a  beautiful  polish,  but  have  not  yet  been 
wrought  to  any  extent.  Many  of  the  paving  stones  in 
the  streets  of  Boston  are  porphyry,  which  are  quite 
distinct  after  a  rain.  A  part  of  the  Andes  mountains 
are  said  to  consist  of  porphyry,  but  the  rock  is  not 
common. 

Amygdaloid  somewhat  resembles  porphyry,  as  it  con- 
sists of  a  homogeneous  base,  and  imbedded  crystals. 
But  the  base  is  less  various,  and  usually  softer,  than  that 
of  porphyry,  and  the  imbedded  minerals  of  an  oval  or 
spheroidal  form,  somewhat  resembling  almonds  in  shape, 
and  hence  the  name  of  the  rock. 

This,  like  the  rock  last  mentioned,  is  sometimes  used 
for  ornamental  purposes,  as  some  varieties  are  capable 
of  a  good  polish,  when  they  exhibit  a  beautiful  com- 
plexion and  surface. 

In  Brighton  and  Hingham,  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston, 
this  rock  is  found  in  large  quantities,  and  in  small  quan- 
tities in  the  vicinity  of  New  Haven,  and  a  few  other 
places.  It  is,  however,  less  common  and  less  abundant 
than  the  rock  last  mentioned. 

The  strata  of  rocks  above  mentioned  and  briefly  de- 
scribed, are  the  principal  materials  which  constitute  the 
mountain  masses,  and  loose  fragments  or  bowlders  upon 
our  globe,  from  which  soils  are  supposed  to  be  formed, 
and  of  whose  character  they  certainly  partake.  Another 
occasion  may  admit  of  a  fuller  and  more  accurate  de- 
scription. 

At  present  we  can  only  add  a  few  reasons  why  geolo- 
gy should  be  universally  introduced  as  a  branch  of 
common  education.  The  substance  has  already  been 
published  in  the  Journal  of  Education. 

1.  It  is  nearly  allied  to  geography.  The  connexion 
and  distinct  provinces  of  these  two  sciences,  have 
already  been  pointed  out  in  the  introductory  remarks  of 
this  number.  From  that  view  it  is  believed,  many  will 
be  ready  to  acknowledge  that  the  claims  of  this  science 
to  becoming  a  subject  of  common  school  instruction, 
are  equally  strong  with  those  of  geography,  and  in 
some  points  superior. 
VOL.  i. — NO.  ii.  4* 


42  GEOLOGY. 


2.  ,It  is  an  interesting  science.     It  opens  to  our  view 
a  new  world,  and  presents  us  with  numerous  objects  of 
beauty  and  of  interest,  before  unnoticed.      The  most 
barren  ledges,  the  commonest  rocks  and  walls  by  the 
wayside,  destitute  of  anything  to  admire  or  notice,  show 
to    groups  of  young  explorers,  that  these    have   not 
merited  the  long  neglect  they  have  suffered  ;  that  they 
contain  much  that  is  rich  and  beautiful,  not  merely 
when  arranged  on  the  shelves  and  cases  of  a  cabinet, 
but  when  placed  on  the  mantelpiece  of  the  parlor  or 
drawing-room,  and  furnishing  instruction  and  delight  to 
the  most  elevated  minds. 

3.  It  is  among  the  grandest  of  sciences.     It  leads  us 
to  view,  with  increased  admiration,  the  towering  moun- 
tain and  awful  precipice,  and  induces  and  enables  us  to 
examine  with  greater  ardor  and   more  exalted  delight, 
those  features  of  the  earth,  which  never  fail  to  excite 
ideas  of  sublimity  even  in  the  rudest  mind.      We  learn 
from  it,  that  amid  the  lofty  aspect,  the  terrific  grandeur, 
and  the  wild  confusion  of  the  Alps  and  Andes,  there  is 
order  and  regularity,  which  evince  the  skill  of  a  wise 
and  all-powerful  architect.     Arrangement  amidst  appa- 
rent disorder,  a  vast  storehouse  of  riches  overhung  by 
forms  of  terror,  objects  of  the  highest  beauty  grouped 
beneath  the  awfully  sublime,  afford  to  the  passing  geolo- 
gist a  moral  as  well  as  an  intellectual  banquet. 

4.  It  gives  new  interest  and  increased  utility  to  our 
journeys  and  our  walks.      A  person,  with  the  slightest 
knowledge  of  geology,  never  passes  from  one  country 
or  place  to  another,  without  finding  much  to  admire, 
and  much  to  increase  his  store  of  knowledge.      If  he 
find  no  thriving  village,  no  field  covered  with  the  fruits 
of  the  farmer's  industry,  no  fertile  tract  groaning  under 
its  load  of  stately  forest  trees,  or  smiling  beneath  its 
dress  of  beautiful  verdure,  he  still  finds  in  the  barren 
plain  or  the  broken  ledge,  much  that  is  beautiful,  rich, 
and  instructive. 

5.  It  furnishes  a  healthful  and  instructive  amusemeni 
to  the  young.      Wherever  it  has  been  introduced  into 
schools,  the  pupils  have  taken  more  or  less  of  their 
pastime  in  examining  and  collecting  specimens  of  min- 


GEOLOGT.  43 


erals  within  their  reach.  A  geological  excursion  is 
uniformly  preferred  by  them  to  their  ordinary  sports, 
too  often  calculated  to  dissipate  their  minds,  and  unfit 
them  for  patient  and  successful  application,  when  they 
return  to  their  school  rooms  or  their  books. 

6.  It  teaches  children  to  be  observing.     A  thousand 
objects  before  unnoticed,  press  upon  their  view;  their 
imagination  and  taste  are  awakened,  and  called  into 
vigorous  and   healthful  exercise,  in  discriminating   the 
aspect  of  objects.      Their  minds  once  put  upon  the 
search  to  discover  what  is  beautiful  and  rich  in  the 
mineral  kingdom,  are  led  to  examine  other  parts  of  this 
wide  creation;  and  wherever  they  go,  or  whatever  they 
see,  they  find  something  to  admire,  and  to  convey  to 
their  minds  entertainment  and  instruction. 

7.  It  leads  to   useful  discoveries.      Wherever  the 
science  of  geology  has  been  introduced  into  schools,  or 
to  the  attention  of  other  young  people,  valuable  discov- 
eries have  been  made  to  enrich  the  treasures  of  science, 
or  to  furnish  new  sources  of  industry  and  of  wealth, 
both  to  individuals  and  the  nation.     If  once  introduced 
into  all  our  schools,  the  whole  country  would   be  put 
under  the  most  minute  and  rigid  examination,  and  com- 
pelled to  yield  up  its  treasures,  now  buried  beneath  the 
surface  of  the  earth.      In  New  England,  alone,  from 
one  to   t\vo  hundred  thousand  young,  but   ardent  and 
efficient   surveyors  might   be   induced    to   afford   their 
gratuitous    and  cheerful  services,   to  explore  our  re- 
sources in  the  mineral  kingdom;  and  while  they  amused 
and  instructed  themselves,  they  would  make  important 
accessions  to  the  public  treasures  of  science  and  of 
wealth. 

8.  As  the  adoption  of  geology  as  a  branch  of  common 
eduWlion,  uniformly  leads  to  a  thorough  examination  of 
the   natural  features  of  the  country,  it  would  prepare 
the  way  for  obtaining  maps  of  all  the  towns  where  it 
should  be  introduced.     Considering  the  trifling  expense 
at  which  lithographic  prints  of  town  maps  can  be  pro- 
cured, and  the  important  vehicles  they  would  be  to 
convey  a  minute  and  accurate  knowledge  of  the  charac- 
ter and  resources  of  our  country  to  the  minds  of  its 


44  GEOLOGY. 


inhabitants,  few  subjects  better  deserve  the  immediate 
attention  of  every  town. 

9.  No  science  is  more  practical.      It  acquaints  far- 
mers with  the  nature  of  their  soils,  and  the  best  methods 
of  improving  them:  civil  engineers  with  the  materials 
for  constructing  roads,  canals,  railways,  wharves,  dams, 
&.c,  and  the  proper  method  of  combining  them:  artists 
with  the  origin  and  nature  of  paints,  and  other  sub- 
stances in  common  use;  and  the  miner  when  and  how 
to  extend  his  researches,  pointing  him  to  a  reward  for 
his  labors,  and  guarding  him  against  abortive  attempts. 

Agriculture,  internal  improvements,  manufactures, 
and  the  various  useful  arts,  occupy,  at  present,  so  large 
a  place  in  public  attention,  as  to  render  every  method 
which  can  be  adopted  to  advance  them  worthy  of  public 
and  private  patronage. 

1 0.  The  introduction  of  geology  into  schools,  would 
tend  to  promote  moral  improvement  among  the  young. 
Perhaps  there  are  not  two  more  unfortunate  circum- 
stances attending  our  system  of  popular  education,  than 
that  the  exercises  of  children  in  the  school  room  are 
irksome,  and  those  for  recreation  are  dissipating  to  the 
mind.      If  schoolhouses  could  be  rendered  places  of 
pleasant  resort,  and  amusements  sources  of  useful  in- 
struction,   the   great    work    of  reform   in   cultivating 
intellectual   and  moral  taste  would    be  fairly  begun. 
The  more  innocent  and  useful  amusements  are  scattered 
around  the  young,  the  less  time  and  disposition  they 
will  have  to  pursue  those  which  are  pernicious  or  use- 
less.     No  subject,  perhaps,  is  better  fitted  to  answer 
the  double  purpose  of  amusement  and  instruction,  than 
geology.      And  few  are  better  fitted  to  show  the  power 
and  wisdom  of  Him,  «  who  weighed  the  mountains  in 
scales,  and  the  hills  in  a  balance.' 

11.  It  is  easily  acquired.      The  features  of  this  sci- 
ence are  not  only  striking  and  grand,  but  they  are  few 
and  simple,  and  exactly  fitted  to  entertain  and  expand 
the   juvenile  mind.      By  the  aid  of  specimens,  with 
appropriate  descriptions,  its  general  principles  are  mor« 
easily  and  readily  understood,  than  those  of  any  other 
science  which  is  taught.     Nothing  is  more  easy  than  to 


GEOLOGY.  45 


introduce  it  into  every  district  and  private  school  in  the 
country,  and  to  acquaint  every  child  with  the  names, 
ingredients  and  uses  of  the  rocks  he  daily  observes  in 
his  walks,  and  with  the  prominent  geological  features 
of  our  country. 

12.  It  is  necessary.  Without  it,  gazetteers  and  jour- 
nals of  travels  cannot  be  understood.  In  some  places, 
a  knowledge  of  the  great  geological  features  of  the 
earth  is  as  common  and  familiar,  as  of  the  continents 
and  oceans;  and  consequently  without  this  knowledge, 
a  person  is  liable  to  find  himself  ignorant  of  the  mosl 
common  and  familiar  topics  of  conversation,  in  the  soci- 
ety he  will  frequently  meet.  To  be  destitute  of  a  branch 
of  science  so  important  and  accessible,  is  to  be  unpro- 
vided with  a  great  source  of  mental  occupation  and  en- 
tertainment for  early  life,  and  in  the  case  of  teachers, 
the  want  of  it  is  the  want  of  a  powerful  and  happy 
means  of  influencing  the  youthful  mind. 

If  it  should  be  asked  how  this  science  can  be  moat 
readily  introduced  into  schools,  it  is  answered  from  nu- 
merous experiments,  that  fifty  or  a  hundred  labelled 
specimens,  with  some  small  manual  to  describe  them, 
explaining  their  ingredients,  uses,  &c,  are  sufficient  to 
make  a  beginning,  which  if  once  made,  seldom  if  ever 
fails  to  be  extended  to  a  general  knowledge  of  the 
subject. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  two  sciences  give  a  description  of  the  earth  ? 

Which  gives  the  names,  situation,  and  number  of 
continents,  islands,  mountains,  &c,  Geography  or  Ge- 
ology ? 

Which  gives  a  description  of  cities,  kingdoms,  and 
empires? 

Which  acquaints  us  with  the  ingredients  and  struc- 
ture of  mountains,  islands,  and  continents,  Geography 
oj*  Geology? 

Which  informs  us  of  the  original  structure  of  the 
earth,  and  the  various  changes  it  has  undergone  by 
earthquakes,  volcanoes,  and  the  gradual  hand  of  time  ? 


46  GEOLOGY. 

Are  our  means  of  information  respecting  the  original 
state  and  numerous  changes  of  the  earth,  abundant  or 
scanty  ? 

Is  the  history  of  our  earth  which  is  contained  in  the 
first  chapter  of  Genesis,  corroborated  or  annulled  by 
its  present  state,  as  learned  by  Geologists? 

What  was  the  state  of  the  earth  when  '  it  was  without 
form  and  void,'  a  liquid  or  solid  ? 

What  was  probably  the  solvent  power,  heat  or  water, 
or  both? 

Have  the  changes  the  earth  has  undergone  in  coming 
to  its  present  state,  been  confined  to  a  few  periods,  or 
have  they  been  constant? 

In  the  order  of  creation,  which  was  formed  first,  the 
mineral  or  vegetable  kingdom?  the  vegetable  or  animal? 

What  solid  substance  was  first  formed  from  the  gene- 
ral chaotic  ocean? 

Of  how  many  ingredients  is  granite  composed,  and 
what  their  names  ? 

Which  is  coarsest,  the  most  ancient,  or  most  recent 
granite  ? 

In  what  kind  of  granite  is  felspar  the  most  abundant, 
old  or  recent  ? 

For  what  useful  purpose  in  the  arts,  is  quartz  used  ? 

Of  what  is  porcelain  made  ? 

Which  ingredient  in  granite  has  been  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  glass  ? 

What  is  the  origin  of  porcelain  clay,  or  kaolin  ? 

Which  is  coarsest,  gneiss  or  granite  ? 

Which  is  most  of  the  character  of  slate  ? 

How  many  ingredients  in  mica  slate  ?  and  are  they 
fine  or  coarse? 

Is  mica  slate  usually  even  or  undulating  in  its  sur- 
face ? 

When  granite  or  gneiss  passes  into  sienite,  what  sub- 
stance takes  the  place  of  mica? 

Is  hornblende  harder  or  less  hard  than  mica  ?  which 
most  easily  divided  into  scales? 

Is  hornblende  of  a  dark  or  light  color? 

In  sienite,  is  it  more  or  less  abundant  than  felspar? 

In  what  part  of  the  country  does  sienite  abound?  For 
what  purpose  is  it  used  ? 


47 


Which  is  most  common,  granite  or  sienite  ? 

What  other  rocks  except  granite,  are  more  common 
than  sienite? 

What  are  the  ingredients  in  greenstone?  and  which 
predominates  ? 

Where  are  extensive  deposits  of  greenstone  ?  Is  it  a 
heavy  or  light  rock?  hard  or  soft?  easy  or  difficult  to 
break? 

What  rock  composes  Mount  Holyoke  and  Mount 
Tom? 

What  rock  abounds  at  New  Haven,  Connecticut,  and 
in  Edinburgh,  Scotland? 

When  sandstone  is  found  in  connexion  with  green- 
stone, is  it  placed  above  or  below  it? 

Of  what  is  sandstone  composed? 

What  place  has  furnished  sandstone,  sometimes  called 
freestone,  as  a  building  material  for  most  of  the  cities 
and  large  towns  in  the  Union? 

What  rock  besides  sandstone,  is  composed  of  grains 
and  pebbles  cemented? 

In  deposits  of  graywacke,  which  is  coarsest,  the 
highest  or  lowest  part  of  the  mass  ? 

What  rock  abounds  between  Boston  and  Providence? 

What  is  the  common  name  for  argillite,  and  to  what 
uses  is  it  applied? 

From  what  place  is  it  obtained? 

Has  it  been  wrought  from  quarries  in  this  country  ? 
and  where? 

Is  limestone  an  ancient  or  modern  rock,  or  both? 

Which  is  coarsest,  the  most  ancient  or  most  recent  ? 

Are  the  varieties  of  limestone  few  or  numerous? 

To  what  stratum  of  rocks  do  marbles  belong,  lime  or 
porphyry  ? 

To  what  does  chalk  belong  ? 

Where  is  gypsum  found  ? 

What  is  the  name  of  that  variety  of  gypsum  which 
resembles  mica? 

Which  is  most  elastic,  mica  or  selenite  ? 

What  is  the  most  important  use  of  gypsum? 

What  plant  is  most  benefited  by  it  as  a  manure? 

For  what  purposes  in  the  arts  except  agriculture,  is 
gypsum  used  ? 


48  OEOLOGT. 


What  is  the  principal  ingredient  in  soapstone  ? 

Is  it  easy  or  difficult  to  work? 

Does  it  endure  or  yield  to  heat? 

Which  of  the  New  England  States  furnishes  it  m 
abundance? 

When  greenstone  contains  imbedded  crystals  of  fel- 
spar and  quartz,  what  is  the  rock  called? 

Are  the  crystals  dispersed  through  porphyry,  felspar, 
ox  quartz,  or  both? 

For  what  purposes  is  porphyry  used? 

Where  is  it  found? 

What  rock  resembles  porphyry? 

What  is  the  shape  of  the  imbedded  minerals  in  amyg- 
daloid? 

Where  is  amygdaloid  found? 

How  many  letters  in  the  geological  alphabet,  and 
what  their  names? 

How  many  and  what  the  names  of  these  letters  in  the 
geological  alphabet,  which  form  the  greatest  part  of  the 
rocky  and  mountain  masses  upon  the  earth  ? 

Of  what  rocks  are  the  highest  mountains  upon  the 
earth  composed  ? 

Of  what  ingredients  are  soils  composed? 

In  regions  where  the  rocks  are  argillite,  does  clay  or 
sand  predominate  in  the  soil? 

What  are  some  of  the  reasons,  why  Geology  should 
become  a  branch  of  common  school  education  ? 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER    III. 


THE     ATMOSPHERE. 


THE  first  thing  which  arrests  our  attention  in  looking 
into  the  atmosphere,  is  the  blue  color  of  the  sky.  Philoso- 
phy has  called  upon  the  science  of  Optics  for  an  ex- 
planation of  this  effect,  and  learns  that  it  is  caused  by 
the  resistance  presented  by  the  air  to  the  different  rays 
of  light.  It  is  easily  shown  that  the  light  which  comes 
from  the  sun,  is  composed  of  seven  distinct  colors, 
whose  blended  effect  is  the  whiteness  with  which  we 
are  familiar.  These  colors  consist  of  red,  orange,  yel- 
low, green,  blue,  indigo  and  violet.  The  blue  ray  is 
supposed  to  be  one  of  the  most  difficult  of  transmission, 
and  is  the  most  readily  absorbed  by  the  atmosphere. 
The  red  rays,  on  the  contrary,  readily  pass  through  the 
air,  while  the  blue  are  almost  lost.  To  this  absorption 
of  the  latter,  we  are  indebted  for  the  bright  azure  which 
tinges  distant  mountains. 

As  we  ascend  into  the  atmosphere,  the  deepness  of 
its  color  diminishes,  and  to  the  traveller  on  the  Alps  or 
the  Andes,  the  sky  appears  quite  black. 

It  is  to  I  he  ready  passage  of  the  red  ray,  that  the 
diver  is  indebted  for  his  vision  in  deep  water.  The  red 
rays  penetrate  the  sea,  while  the  blue  are  reflected 
from  its  surface.  From  the  reflective  power  of  the  at- 
mosphere, we  derive  the  delightful  twilight  before  the 
sun  rises,  and  after  he  has  passed  from  our  view. 

The  word  Pneumatics  is  derived  from  the  Greek 
word  pneuma,  which  signifies  spirit,  that  being  one  of 
the  names  by  which  the  air  was  called  by  the  ancients. 
This  term  is  applied  to  that  branch  of  natural  philoso- 
phy which  treats  of  the  mechanical  properties  of  the 


50  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

atmosphere,  in  contradistinction  to  the  chemical  quali- 
ties of  which  our  first  number  treated. 

The  first  inquiry  into  the  mechanical  properties  of 
the  air,  was  made  in  Italy  about  the  year  1640.  And 
we  may  conclude,  that  the  brilliant  display  this  science 
now  makes,  had  its  origin  in  the  experiments  of  Torri- 
cclli,  which  were  caused  by  the  failure  of  the  mechan- 
ics of  the  Duke  of  Florence,  to  raise  water  in  a  pump 
above  thirty  feet. 

That  we  may  fully  understand  this  substance  as  a 
mechanical  agent,  we  must  examine  it  a  little  in  detail, 
and  observe  its  relations  to  common  matter. 

It  has  been  already  stated  that  the  atmosphere  *  con- 
sists of  two  distinct  gases  or  airs,  in  the  proportion  of 
79  parts  of  nitrogen  to  21  of  oxygen,  and  a  small  quan- 
tity of  carbonic  acid. 

All  substances  in  nature  considered  mechanically, 
are  divided  into  solids  and  fluids.  By  a  solid,  we  are 
to  understand  that  body  or  substance  whose  particles 
are  so  related  to  one  another,  as  not  to  admit  of  motion 
among  each  other,  when  any  force  disturbs  the  inertia 
or  rest  of  the  whole. 

As  a  fluid  we  recognise  that  substance  whose  parti- 
cles have  a  less  cohesive  attraction,  and  are  easily  set 
in  motion  among  each  other  by  a  slight  disturbing  cause. 
Besides,  when  at  rest,  its  surface  is  uniformly  level. 
This  forms  a  peculiar  character  of  a  fluid;  while  a  solid 
is  disposed  to  continue  in  that  position  which  followed 
the  impulse. 

The  philosophical  difference  of  these  two  conditions 
of  matter,  depends  on  the  quantity  of  heat  which  each 
possesses.  A  familiar  illustration  is  exhibited  of  the 
various  conditions  of  the  same  material,  in  ice,  water, 
and  vapor.  Ice  at  32°  Fahrenheit  requires  many  degrees 
of  heat  to  liquify  it,  and  when  melted,  the  thermometer 
shows  no  evidence  of  the  addition.  Water  requires 
many  degrees  to  convert  it  into  vapor,  yet  this  vapor 
in  passing  off,  exhibits  no  greater  heat  than  the  water 
from  which  it  is  escaping. 

*  The  word  aim.  sphere  is  derived  from  t:,e  Greek,  and  signifies 
cplierc  of  vapor. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


51 


The  air  is  therefore  to  be  considered  as  a  fluid,  com- 
posed of  certain  particles,  separated  by  the  heat  dif- 
fused among  them.  An  interesting  illustration  of  the 
separation  and  repulsion  of  these  particles  by  heat,  is 
shown  in  the  explosionvof  gunpowder.  This  article  is 
composed  of  nitre,  charcoal  and  sulphur,  in  definite 
proportions.  Each  one  of  these  materials  has  certain 
constituents,  condensed  in  the  form  of  a  solid.  When 
sufficient  heat  is  applied  to  overcome  their  cohesive 
attraction,  these  constituents  are  separated  by  the  par- 
ticles of  heat  which  enter  between  them,  and  which, 
causing  them  suddenly  to  diverge,  produce  their  repul- 
sive power. 

The  atmosphere  extends  to  nearly  fifty  miles  from  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  and  bears  a  similar  proportion  in  its 
height  to  the  diameter  of  the  earth,  as  a  covering  of  one 
tenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  to  a  sphere  of  twelve  inches. 

By  the  consideration  of  the  great  height  of  the  air, 
and  the  materials  of  which  it  is  formed,  we  are  prepar- 
ed to  commence  an  examination  of  its  weight.  Though 
its  particles  are  invisible,  yet  they  are  attracted  to  the 
earth  by  the  same  principle  as  larger  perceptible  bodies. 
And  consequently,  they  must  exert  a  specific  pressure 
upon  everything  on  which  they  rest.  No  one  will 
deny  that  a  rock  or  a  house  has  a  definite  weight. 
Though  these  are  visible,  yet  the  effect  is  the  same 
from  the  pressure  of  more  subtle  materials.  No  one 
would  doubt  that  the  ocean  presses  with  a  definite  force 
upon  its  base.  Yet  to  the  eye  of  the  fish,  the  water  is 
as  invisible  as  the  air  is  to  us,  and  he  depends  upon  his 
other  senses,  like  ourselves,  for  evidences  of  its  exis- 
tence. 

Although  the  atmosphere  extends  to  nearly  fifty  miles 
from  the  earth,  we  must  not  suppose  that  its  density  is 
uniform  throughout,  any  more  than  we  would  think  a 
pile  of  cotton  of  the  same  height,  as  dense  in  the  cen- 
tre as  at  the  base.  The  density  diminishes  as  we  as- 
cend, in  certain  proportions.  For  on  Mont  Blanc,  which 
is  about  three  miles  and  a  half  above  the  level  of  the  sea, 
the  pressure  is  diminished  to  one  half;  proving  that  one  half 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


of  the  whole  weight  exists  within  four  miles  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  earth. 

Experiment  has  proved  this  weight  to  be  about  fifteen 
pounds  on  every  square  inch.  If  the  human  body  pre- 
sent a  surface  of  eleven  square  feet,  it  must  sustain  a 
pressure  of  upwards  of  eleven  tons.  And  the  pressure 
upon  the  whole  earth,  which  exposes  about  5,575,680,- 
000,000,000  square  feet,  is  equal  to  about  1,164,201,- 
840,000,000,000  pounds.  This  seems  almost  incredi- 
ble, but  we  hope  to  render  the  fact  less  startling  as  we 
proceed  with  our  illustrations.  It  may  be  asked  why 
we  are  not  more  sensible  of  this  vast  weight.  We  are 
so  constituted  as  to  require  this  provision  of  nature,  and 
from  the  effect  of  habit  we  are  insensible  to  its  power. 
Those  who  ascend  Mont  Blanc  very  sensibly  experi- 
ence a  change.  They  complain  of  great  fulness  and 
distention  of  the  vessels,  which  arises  from  the  inequa- 
lity of  the  external  and  internal  pressures  On  the 
surface  of  the  earth,  the  forces  of  the  internal  fluids  are 
counterbalanced  by  the  atmosphere.  And  it  is  owing 
to  the  equality  of  these  forces  that  we  are  insensible  to 
the  existence  of  either.  This  is  further  exemplified  in 
the  fish,  who  is  sometimes  caught  at  a  depth  of  2560  feet, 
where  he  is  compressed  by  a  force  equivalent  to  eighty 
atmospheres;  yet  he  is  not  injured,  nor  are  his  motions 
impeded.  The  internal  pressure  of  his  body  resists 
that  from  without,  and  therefore  he  is  perfectly  protect- 
ed. Besides,  the  pressure  he  supports,  acting  in  all 
directions,  neutralizes  itself  by  promoting  as  much  as 
it  retards  his  motions. 

Another  evidence  of  the  pressure  of  fluids,  is  exhib- 
ited in  the  following  instance.  If  we  place  a  weight  of 
any  kind  upon  a  thin  plate  of  glass,  resting  by  its  ex- 
treme edge,  it  will  be  instantly  broken  through,  be- 
cause all  the  weight  is  from  above.  But  if  the  glass 
be  laid  on  a  flat  surface,  and  the  weight  then  gently 
placed  on  it,  it  will  not  be  broken,  because  the  resis- 
tance from  below  is  equal  to  the  force  from  above.  If 
the  glass  plate  were  made  the  bottom  of  a  vessel,  and 
water  were  poured  upon  it,  it  would  be  destroyed  as  in 
the  first  case  But  if  it  were  placed  in  a  vessel  at  any 


THE    ATMOSPHERE. 


53 


depth,  so  that  the  fluid  were  on  both  sides  of  it,  the 
pouring  in  of  the  water  would  not  injure  the  glass.  If 
it  were  even  placed  several  feet  below  the  surface,  and 
were  so  thin  that  a  few  grains  would  break  it  in  the 
atmosphere,  it  would  be  safe  in  the  fluid,  although  it 
might  endure  the  pressure  of  several  hundred  weight. 
These  peculiarities  depend  on  the  uniform  pressure  of 
fluids,  which  is  equal  upwards,  downwards  and  in  all 
directions. 

RESISTANCE    OF    THE    AIR. 

The  efforts  to  prove  the  mechanical  properties  of  the 
air,  were  looked  upon  with  contempt  by  many  who  pro- 
fessed a  great  regard  for  science.  How  could  it  pos- 
sess mechanical  peculiarities,  when  it  appeared  to  offer 
no  resistance  to  their  motions,  permitted  the  bird  to 
soar  to  the  loftiest  heights,  and  the  rain  to  fall  in  gentle 
drops  on  the  tender  plant?  But  the  science  now  ex- 
hibits the  fallacy  of  such  reasoning,  and  explains  the 
means  by  which  all  these  purposes  are  effected.  It 
tells  us  man  cannot  live  above  a  certain  distance  from 
the  sea;  the  bird  cannot  soar  beyond  a  certain  height; 
and  that  the  gentleness  of  the  rain  is  caused  by  the  re- 
sistance the  air  offers  to  its  fall.  Were  it  not  for  this 
cause  birds  could  not  rise  in  the  atmosphere.  Their 
flight  depends  on  the  resistance  the  air  opposes  to  their 
wings.  Those  birds  which  fly  a  long  while  and  far, 
generally  have  small  bodies  and  large  wings.  While 
those  of  shorter  or  less  frequent  flight,  commonly  have 
larger  bodies  and  smaller  wings  in  proportion.  These 
have  to  beat  their  wings  more  frequently  in  flying,  to 
preserve  their  velocity  and  height,  and  are  consequently 
more  easily  fatigued. 

The  velocity  of  falling  bodies  is  much  resisted  by  the 
air  ;  and  the  distance  to  which  projectiles  are  thrown, 
is  materially  affected  by  this  principle.  One  of  the 
most  beautiful  illustrations  of  this  resistance  is  shown 
in  the  ascent  of  the  sky-rocket. 

The  common  sky-rocket  consists  of  a  simple  cylinder 
of  paper  filled  with  gunpowder,  or  some  other  explosive 
material,  about  six  inches  long,  and  about  one  and  a 

VOL.  i. — NO.  in.  5* 


54  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


half  in  diameter.  This  is  connected  with  one  end  of  a 
stick  about  four  feet  long,  for  the  purpose  of  preserving 
its  direction.  It  will  now  be  recollected  what  takes 
place,  when  fire  is  applied  to  the  material  through  the 
ftisee  at  the  lower  end  of  the  cylinder.  Remembering  our 
description  of  the  inflammation  of  gunpowder,  we  per- 
ceive that  the  only  exit  for  this  newly  formed  air,  is  down- 
ward, and  consequently,  as  it  rushes  out,  it  meets  with 
the  atmosphere,  by  which  its  escape  is  resisted.  Hence 
it  must  ascend  if  its  weight  be  not  greater  than  the 
resistance,  and  continue  its  flight  until  its  power  is 
consumed. 


fi? 


PRESSURE    OF    THE    AIR. 

We  are  quite  insensible  to  what  principles  of  philoso- 
we  are  indebted  for  our  comforts,  and  how  much 
las  been  made  subservient  to  our  use  by  the  great 
artificer  of  nature.  The  first  act  performed  by  a  human 
being,  the  process  by  which  the  vital  current  from  his 
mother's  breast  is  made  to  supply  his  wants,  depends 
on  the  pressure  of  the  air.  How  few  have  any  idea  of 
philosophical  aid  in  what  appears  to  be  so  simple.  But  the 
same  may  be  remarked  of  innumerable  circumstances, 
which  appear  to  be  produced  with  as  little  design. 
Since  the  attention  of  philosophers  has  been  directed 
to  these  mechanical  peculiarities,  several  phenomena 
have  been  explained,  which  had  depended  for  their  so- 
lution solely  on  conjecture.  The  awful  thunder  found 
an  explanation  in  the  theory  that  the  lightning  in  leap- 
ing from  cloud  to  cloud,  or  from  a  cloud  to  the  earth, 
drove  back  the  air  which  opposed  its  progress,  while  the 
atmosphere,  rushing  in  from  behind  to  fill  the  vacancy, 
produced  the  sound  which  always  succeeds  the  flash. 

To  Sir  Everard  Home  we  are  obliged  for  the  expla- 
nation of  the  cause  by  which  flies  are  enabled  to  walk 
on  the  lower  side  of  a  horizontal  plane,  or  the  perpen- 
dicular surface  of  glass.  He  ascertained  that  their 
feet  have  flat  skins  or  flaps,  like  the  feet  of  web-footed 
animals,  and  that  they  have  the  power  of  drawing  down 
this  web  so  closely  upon  the  surface  whereon  they  walk, 
as  effectually  to  exclude  the  air.  The  consequence  of 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  55 


which  is,  their  feet  are  pressed  down  upon  that  surface 
by  the  external  atmosphere.  On  this  principle,  other 
insects  possess  the  power  of  locomotion  on  similar  situ- 
ations. The  same  law  applies  to  the  sea-horse,  who  is 
thus  enabled  to  climb  perpendicular  hills  of  ice  ;  and  to 
some  kinds  of  lizard,  who  ascend  vertical  walls  at  plea- 
sure. Many  sea-shells  depend  on  this  law  for  their 
tenacity  to  rocks.  The  animal  has  the  power  of  expel- 
ling the  air  between  himself  and  the  rock,  whereby  he 
is  pressed  there  with  a  force  proportioned  to  his  size. 
Cupping,  whether  affected  by  a  syringe,  or  by  the  re- 
moval of  the  air  by  burning  anything  in  the  cup,  be- 
longs to  the  same  law.  And  until  within  a  very  few 
years,  the  steam-engine,  the  mightiest  of  all  the  inven- 
tions of  man,  depended  for  its  power  on  the  pressure  of 
the  air. 

Another  evidence  of  the  effect  of  this  pressure  is 
shown  in  the  process  of  boiling.  We  know  by  the 
thermometer,  that  water  boils  at  the  surface  of  the  earth 
at  212°,  and  that  other  liquids  require  a  certain  quan- 
tity of  heat  to  be  absorbed,  before  they  exhibit  the 
phenomenon  of  boiling.  But  we  find  that  in  proportion 
as  we  rise  from  the  level  of  the  sea,  these  substances 
do  not  require  the  absorption  of  so  much  heat,  to  exhibit 
the  same  peculiarities.  Water,  for  instance,  boils  on 
Mont  Blanc  at  180°  Fahrenheit;  and  ether,  which  boils 
at  the  level  of  the  sea  at  98°,  cannot  be  retained  there  in 
any  form,  if  there  be  the  slightest  communication  with 
the  atmosphere.  This  is  produced  by  the  diminished 
pressure  of  the  air  ;  and  in  fact,  the  boiling  of  water  at 
different  heights,  if  properly  attended  to,  would  be  one 
means  of  ascertaining  the  height  of  mountains. 

A  beautiful  illustration  of  the  removal  of  pressure 
from  the  surface  of  water,  may  be  exhibited  by  boiling 
it  in  a  common  oil  flask,  and  corking  it  tightly  during 
the  ebullition.  The  glass  being  removed  from  the 
fire,  shows  the  continuance  of  the  commotion,  which 
may  be  immediately  checked  by  holding  it  near  the  fire 
or  dipping  it  into  hot  water.  This  very  curious  experi- 
ment may  be  easily  explained.  The  addition  of  heat 
checks  the  commotion  by  expanding  the  vapor  on  the 


66  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


surface,  and  thereby  increasing  its  pressure.  The  ap- 
plication of  cold  condenses  the  vapor  ;  and  as  the  air 
has  been  previously  driven  out  by  boiling,  the  pressure 
is  so  much  diminished,  as  to  offer  but  little  resistance 
to  the  escape  of  vapor  from  the  bottom  of  the  fluid  in  the 
form  of  bubbles. 

THE    BAROMETER. 

The  first  instrument  we  shall  describe  illustrative  of 
the  pressure  of  the  air,  is  the  Barometer.  This  name 
is  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies  a  measurer  of 
weight.  With  this  instrument,  the  famous  experi- 
ment of  Torricelli  was  made,  which  he  communicated  to 
his  friend  Viviani,  who  repeated  it  in  1643. 

The  barometer  consists  of  a  glass  tube  about  thirty- 
four  inches  long,  sealed  at  one  end,  which,  being  filled 
with  quicksilver,  is  inverted  in  a  vessel  or  cup  of  the 
same  material.  The  tube  being  now  held  perpendicu- 
larly, the  fluid  will  subside  from  the  top,  and  stand  at  that 
height  by  which  it  is  balanced  by  a  column  of  atmo- 
sphere extending  from  the  surface  of  the  earth  to  its 
utmost  height.  The  average  height  of  the  quicksilver 
is  about  thirty  inches  at  the  level  of  the  sea.  It  is  main- 
tained at  a  certain  elevation  by  the  pressure  of  the  air 
on  the  surrounding  fluid,  while  that  portion  over  which 
the  tube  stands  has  been  relieved  from  the  weight.  If 
water  were  substituted  for  quicksilver,  it  would  be  sup- 
ported at  the  height  of  thirtytwo  feet,  because  the  quick- 
silver is  about  fourteen  times  heavier. 

The  barometer  is  commonly  used  as  a  weather-glass, 
and  as  such,  it  gives  evidence  of  the  changes  that  are 
about  to  take  place.  The  plate  connected  with  the  upper 
part  of  the  tube,  is  divided  into  inches  and  tenths.  A 
movable  point,  called  a  vernier,  subdividing  this  division 
into  tenths  and  hundredths,  moves  through  the  centre  of 
this  plate  perpendicularly.  By  placing  the  vernier  at 
the  exact  height  of  the  quicksilver,  we  have  the  height 
in  inches,  tenths,  and  hundredths.  The  words  marked 
on  the  plate  are  not  so  much  to  be  regarded  as  the  mo- 
tion of  the  fluid  ;  for  a  deviation  from  the  highest  point 
may  be  followed  by  rain,  although  the  quicksilver  may 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  5? 


not  have  sunk  below  the  point  marked  Fair;  and  the 
same  may  be  noticed  with  regard  to  its  rise. 

By  this  instrument  we  detect  an  error  very  common 
among  mankind,  respecting  the  weight  of  the  air.  It 
is  generally  supposed  that  air  is  heaviest  when  the  atmo- 
sphere is  cloudy  and  filled  with  moisture,  and  that  the 
languor  we  then  experience  is  produced  by  the  increased 
weight  upon  our  bodies.  But  the  reverse  is  the  fact. 
When  the  atmosphere  is  heavy,  clouds  do  not  linger 
near  the  earth,  smoke  rises  almost  perpendicularly,  and 
we  experience  a  peculiar  elasticity  and  energy.  When 
it  is  light,  on  the  contrary,  clouds  come  very  near  the 
earth,  smoke  falls  immediately  to  the  ground,  and  the 
animal  system  feels  languid  and  oppressed.  The  baro- 
meter proves  that  the  weight  has  been  diminished;  for 
the  quicksilver,  not  being  counterbalanced  by  so  heavy  a 
column  of  air,  .necessarily  sinks.  Therefore,  we  find 
that  when  the  atmosphere  is  heaviest,  our  sensations 
are  most  agreeable,  and  when  it  is  lightest,  the  internal 
pressure,  not  being  fully  resisted,  produces  the  feelings 
of  languor  and  oppression. 

There  are  four  forms  of  the  barometer  in  use,  each 
of  which  presents  certain  advantages. 

1st.  The  portable,  or  parlor  barometer. 

2d.  The  wheel  barometer. 

3d.  The  marine  barometer. 

4th.  The  mountain  barometer. 

All  these  are  modifications  of  the  same  principle. 
The  first  is  the  simplest,  and  was  described  in  explain- 
ing the  peculiarities  of  the  instrument.  It  acquires  the 
name  of  portable  from  the  screw  which  is  connected 
with  the  cup  at  the  bottom,  whereby  the  fluid  can  be 
pressed  up  the  whole  length  of  the  tube,  to  prevent  ac- 
cidents in  its  transportation. 

The  second  differs  very  much  in  appearance  ;  the 
tube  being  concealed,  and  a  face  somewhat  resem- 
bling that  of  a  clock,  exhibiting  the  changes  by  the  mo- 
tion of  a  hand. 

The  third  differs  from  the  first  in  having  the  bore  of 
the  tube  of  unequal  diameters,  to  guard  against  the 
accidents  by  motion  of  the  vessel. 


58  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


The  fourth  is  so  accurately  divided  as  to  exhibit  the 
minutest  difference  in  elevation  ;  and  is  used  for  mea- 
suring the  height  of  mountains. 

Among  these  the  marine  barometer  presents  the  most 
interesting  beauties.  Its  use,  however,  is  not  so  com- 
mon as  its  merits  deserve.  To  those  who  wander  over 
trackless  seas,  and  along  unknown  coasts,  the  ability  to 
discover  a  threatened  change  would  be  invaluable. 

Several  romantic  stories  are  connected  with  the  his- 
tory of  this  instrument  ;  and  all  who  have  experienced 
its  benefits,  have  snme  incident  to  relate  illustrating  its 
value.  Arnott  states  that  he  f  was  one  of  a  numerous 
crew,  who  probably  owed  their  preservation  to  its  almost 
miraculous  warning.  It  was  in  a  southern  latitude. 
The  sun  had  just  set  with  placid  appearance,  closing  a 
beautiful  afternoon,  and  the  usual  mirth  of  the  evening 
watch  was  proceeding,  when  the  captain's  order  came 
to  prepare  with  all  haste  for  a  storm.  As  yet,  the  old- 
est sailors  had  not  perceived  even  a  threatening  in  the 
sky,  and  were  surprised  at  the  extent  and  hurry  of  the 
preparations.  But  the  required  measures  were  not 
completed,  when  a  more  awful  hurricane  burst  upon  them 
than  the  most  experienced  had  ever  braved.  Nothing 
could  withstand  it:  the  sails,  already  furled,  and  closely 
bound  to  the  yards,  were  riven  away  in  tatters:  even 
the  bare  yards  and  masts  were  in  great  part  disabled  ; 
and  at  one  time  the  whole  rigging  had  nearly  fallen 
by  the  board.  Such,  for  a  few  hours,  was  the  mingled 
roar  of  the  hurricane  above,  of  the  waves  around,  and 
of  the  incessant  peals  of  thunder,  that  no  human  voice 
could  be  heard  ;  and  amidst  the  general  consternation, 
even  the  trumpet  sounded  in  vain. 

'  In  that  awful  night,  but  for  the  little  tube  of  mercury 
which  had  given  the  warning,  by  having  fallen  with 
great  rapidity,  neither  the  strength  of  the  noble  ship, 
nor  the  skill  and  energies  of  the  commander,  could  have 
saved  one  man  to  tell  the  tale.' 

The  barometer  is  also  used  for  determining  the  height 
of  mountains.  It  was  the  experiment  of  Pascal  with 
this  instrument,  that  satisfactorily  proved  the  difference 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  59 


in  the  weight  of  the  air  at  various  heights,  and  which 
established  its  pressure. 

If  the  atmosphere  support  a  column  of  quicksilver  at 
thirty  inches  at  the  level  of  the  sea,  we  must  infer  that 
the  height  of  the  fluid  will  diminish  as  we  ascend.  We 
accordingly  find,  by  a  rough  calculation,  that  an  ascent  of 
a  thousand  feet  causes  the  quicksilver  to  sink  one  inch. 
On  Mont  Blanc  it  falls  to  about  fifteen  inches,  show- 
ing an  elevation  of  fifteen  thousand  feet.  And  in  De 
Luc's  famous  balloon  ascent,  it  sunk  to  twelve  inches, 
proving  an  altitude  of  twentyone  thousand  feet,  the 
greatest  height  to  which  man  has  ever  risen. 

THE    SYPHON. 

The  name  of  this  instrument  is  also  derived  from  the 
Greek,  and  signifies  simply  a  tube.  The  syphon  is 
a  crooked  tube,  one  leg  or  branch  of  which  is  longer 
than  the  other.  It  is  used  for  raising  fluids,  emptying 
vessels,  and  various  hydrostatical  experiments. 

The  principle  of  the  formation  of  the  syphon,  forbids 
a  greater  height  than  thirtytwo  feet,  when  the  two  ex- 
tremities rest  on  a  horizontal  plane.  If  now  the  lesser 
limb  be  immersed  in  water,  and  the  air  be  removed  from 
the  tube,  the  pressure  of  the  air  on  the  surrounding 
water  will  force  it  to  pass  off  through  this  instrument. 

From  small  syphons,  the  air  may  be  removed  in  three 
ways.  1st.  By  drawing  it  out  by  the  mouth  ;  2d.  By 
a  small  pump  connected  with  the  tube;  and  3d.  By  in- 
verting it,  and  filling  both  limbs  with  the  fluid.  Then, 
on  immersing  the  extremity  of  the  short  limb,  as  just  de- 
scribed, its  purpose  will  be  effected.  The  explanation 
of  the  effect  may  be  understood,  by  recollecting  that 
each  extremity  is  equally  pressed  by  the  surrounding 
atmosphere  ;  '  but  the  air  not  being  able  to  sustain  all 
the  water  in  the  longer  leg,  and  being  more  than  able 
to  sustain  that  in  the  shorter  leg  ;  Avith  the  excess  of 
force,  therefore,  it  will  raise  new  water  into  the  shorter 
leg  ;  and  this  new  water  cannot  make  its  way  but  by 
protruding  the  tirst  before  it  ;  by  this  means  is  the  water 
continually  driven  out  at  the  longer  leg,  as  it  is  con- 
tinually raised  by  the  shorter.' 


60  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


This  instrument  is  very  useful  for  drawing  off  liquids 
without  disturbing  their  sediment.  And  it  may  be  em- 

floyed  for  emptying  vessels  of  any  size,  or  even  a  lake, 
t  would  be  an  invaluable  means  of  removing  water 
from  certain  lands  which  could  not  otherwise  be  im- 
proved. A  tube  formed  of  bored  logs,  may  be  laid  from 
the  place  to  be  drained,  even  over  a  hill,  if  it  do  not 
exceed  thirtytwo  feet  in  height,  and  down  its  side  so  far 
as  to  make  that  the  longer  limb.  Both  ends  must  then 
be  plugged,  that  the  syphon  may  be  filled  with  water, 
when  the  plugs  may  be  removed,  and  the  pressure  of 
the  air  will  force  out  all  the  water  reached  by  the  end 
of  the  log. 

The  syphon  will  continue  to  act  until  all  the  fluid 
has  been  consumed,  or  that  discharged  shall  have  at- 
tained a  height  equal  to  that  from  which  it  came. 

There  is  a  pretty  toy  made  on  this  principle,  called 
the  cup  of  Tantalus,  from  the  mythological  fable  of  the 
being  who  was  condemned  to  stand  in  water  up  to  his 
neck,  and  yet  to  die  of  thirst.  The  glass  exhibits  the 
figure  of  a  human  being  standing  in  the  centre.  When 
water  is  poured  into  it,  it  rises  until  it  reaches  the  neck 
of  the  image,  and  immediately  begins  to  pass  off  through 
a  concealed  syphon,  and  continues  till  the  whole  is 
discharged. 

This  instrument  also  explains  the  cause  of  intermitting 
springs,  or  those  which  run  for  a  time  and  suddenly 
stop,  and  then  resume  their  discharge  after  a  certain 
period.  They  are  produced  by  the  channels  through 
which  the  water  flows,  being  formed  like  syphons. 

In  some  places  there  are  springs  which  run  freely  in 
summer  or  in  dry  weather,  but  discharge  no  water  in 
the  winter,  or  in  wet  weather.  This  is  caused  by  a 
hollow  in  the  hill  being  fed  by  runners,  but  having,  be- 
side the  vent  through  which  the  spring  flows,  a  waste- 
pipe  like  a  syphon,  which  carries  off  the  fluid  another 
way,  as  soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  high. 

Superstitious  circumstances  are  often  associated  with 
such  springs,  but  by  understanding  the  principle  of  the 
syphon,  their  marvellous  character  is  easily  explained. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  61 


ELASTICITY    OF    THE    AIR. 

We  say  that  body  or  material  is  elastic,  whose  parti- 
cles admit  of  condensation  or  compression,  and  an  im- 
mediate return  to  their  primitive  condition,  when  the 
compressing  power  is  removed.  All  aeriform  bodies 
are  perfectly  elastic,  and  admit  of  compression  and 
condensation  in  the  fullest  degree.  There  is  no  quali- 
ty of  the  air  so  important  to  the  arts  as  its  elasticity. 
To  it  belongs  the  principle  of  the  airpump,  the  fire- 
engine,  the  airgun,  the  match  syringe  and  the  diving 
bell. 

There  is  no  spring  worthy  of  comparison  with  the 
elastic  power  of  the  air.  Load  it  as  heavily  as  we  may, 
it  will  sink  beneath  the  weight,  but  it  cannot  be  broken. 
Confine  it  for  centuries  to  the  same  labor,  it  is  there 
still,  faithful  and  unworn,  ever  ready  to  perform  its 
task.  And  though  the  being  who  confines  it  for  his 
operations,  realizes  the  value  of  its  power,  and  sinks 
down  to  the  grave,  it  still  remains  the  willing  slave  of 
his  descendants,  until  the  barriers  that  confine  it,  conr 
sumed  by  the  accumulated  rust  of  years,  refuse  to  re- 
tain the  servant  longer. 


The  instrument  by  which  most  of  the  experiments 
illustrating  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  are  shown, 
is  called  an  airpump.  Its  object  is  to  remove  the  air 
from  one  side  or  surface  of  a  vessel,  that  the  natural 
pressure  on  the  opposite  side  may  not  be  resisted  by 
the  pressure  from  below.  We  are  apt  to  associate  ideas 
of  great  complexity  with  the  name  of  an  airpump,  when 
in  fact  it  is  among  the  most  simple  instruments  of  phi- 
losophy. Any  one  who  has  noticed  the  structure  of  a 
common  water  pump,  has  seen  the  whole  of  the  materi- 
als used  in  the  other;  therefore  we  will  first  speak 
of  the  water  pump,  which  properly  belongs  to  the  pres- 
sure of  the  air,  but  is  introduced  here  for  facility  of  de- 
scription, and  then  show  how  nearly  they  resemble  each 
other. 


THE   ATMOSPHERE. 


COMMON    PUMP. 

A  pump  may  be  considered  as  a  simple  cylinder, 
with  a  box  or  valve  fixed  at  one  end,  and  another,  mov- 
able by  a  piston,  connected  with  a  handle  at  the  upper 
end  of  the  cylinder.  The  first  elevation  of  the  handle 
causes  the  upper  valve  to  descend,  and  when  it  is  de- 
pressed, the  valve  is  made  to  rise.  The  result  of 
this  action,  when  the  pump  is  prepared  for  uso,  is  to 
lift  the  air  on  the  first  depression  of  the  handle,  and 
cause  a  partial  vacancy  between  the  lower  box  and  the 
one  that  has  been  raised.  The  air  not  being  allowed 
to  enter  from  above  through  the  valve,  is  removed  from 
the  place  it  had  occupied,  while  that  resting  on  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  surrounding  the  pump,  forces  it  up  to 
supply  the  deficiency.  The  piston  being  again  de- 
pressed, meets  with  the  water  that  has  passed  through 
the  lower  valve,  which  readily  lifts  the  upper  box,  and 
passing  through  it,  is  easily  raised  when  the  handle  is 
again  pressed  down.  A  continuance  of  this  action  soon 
produces  a  regular  stream  from  the  spout  of  the  pump. 

An  effect  precisely  similar  to  this,  is  produced  in  the 
elevation  and  depression  of  the  piston  of  the  airpump. 
The  air  passes  through  its  valves  in  the  same  manner 
as  the  air  and  water  have  passed  through  those  of  the 
common  pump.  The  barrel  of  the  airpump  is  connect- 
ed by  a  tube  to  a  flat  plate  of  glass  or  metal,  on  which  the 
glass  or  receiver,  as  it  is  called,  has  been  placed  to 
have  its  air  taken  away.  The  principle  of  the  airpump 
depends  on  the  repulsion  or  elasticity  of  the  air  in  ex- 
panding by  the  removal  of  pressure.  At  each  eleva- 
tion of  the  piston  a  portion  of  air  escapes,  whose  place 
is  immediately  occupied  by  the  expansion  of  that  which 
remains.  This  expansion  continues  until  the  repulsive 
powers  of  the  air  are  no  longer  able  to  expel  those 
particles  which  rest  at  the  bottom  of  the  piston. 

The  result  of  the  removal  of  air  from  a  vessel  is 
called  a  vacuum.  This  must  be  produced  in  all  vessels 
intended  to  exhibit  the  pressure  of  the  air.  It  exists  in 
the  barometer  between  the  fluid  and  the  top  of  the  tube, 
and  is  called  the  Torricellian  vacuum,  which  is  the  most 
perfect  that  art  can  produce. 


THE    ATMOSPHERE.  63 

The  first  vacuum  obtained  by  mechanical  means, 
was  that  of  Otto  de  Guericke,  a  burgomaster  of  Mag- 
deburg, who,  in  the  year  1654,  removed  the  air  from  two 
hemispheres,  by  the  use  of  a  syringe.  The  experi- 
ment he  wished  to  exhibit  was  the  pressure  of  the  air. 
In  this  he  succeeded,  for  the  continued  efforts  of  twelve 
horses,  pulling  in  opposite  directions,  could  not  overcome 
the  power  by  which  the  hemispheres  were  pressed  to- 
gether. 

If  we  place  an  inverted  tumbler,  whose  edge  has 
been  ground,  upon  the  plate  of  the  pump,  and  exhaust 
the  air,  it  will  be  so  firmly  fixed  as  to  be  difficult  of  re- 
moval. The  power  required  to  raise  the  tumbler,  will 
be  equal  to  the  number  of  square  inches  it  covers,  mul- 
tiplied by  fifteen  pounds. 

The  airpurnp  and  barometer  reciprocally  prove  each 
other.  The  barometer,  showing  when  the  air  has  been 
removed  from  a  vessel,  by  the  entire  fall  of  the  quick- 
silver; and  the  airpump  proving  the  fluid  is  supported 
by  the  air,  by  this  operation. 

A  great  number  of  experiments  may  be  exhibited  by 
the  airpump,  which  the  limits  of  our  number  will  not 
allow  us  to  describe.  Besides  it  is  our  object  rather  to 
explain  principles  than  to  dwell  on  particulars. 


The  cause  by  which  water  is  generally  supposed  to 
be  raised  in  a  pump  is  called  suction.  But  there  is 
not  a  single  instance  where  it  is  supposed  to  prevail, 
which  cannot  be  explained  by  the  pressure  of  the  air. 
The  term  suction  is  too  vague  and  indefinite  for  any 
philosophical  purpose,  and  blinds  us  to  those  beauties 
which  nature  has  presented.  The  effect  from  which  this 
appellation  will  be  the  most  difficult  of  removal,  is  that 
produced  by  the  mouth.  Sucking  poisoned  wounds  is 
coeval  with  the  remotest  antiquity,  and  although  the 
term  conveys  to  our  minds  a  certain  operation,  yet  it 
does  not  reveal  to  us  its  real  features.  The  applica- 
tion of  this  word  to  the  process  of  drinking,  would  be 
considered  highly  vulgar,  yet  it  is  performed  on  pre- 
cisely the  same  principle,  and  in  a  manner  similar  to 


64  THE    ATMOSPHERE. 

sucking  the  poison  from  a  wound.  When  the  lips  are 
applied  to  a  wound,  the  effort  is  to  remove  the  pressure 
of  the  air  from  its  surface,  that  the  internal  pressure 
may  predominate,  and  force  out  the  exposed  fluids, 
thereby  carrying  off  the  poison  that  may  have  been 
mixed  with  them. 

FIRE-ENGINE. 

The  greatest  improvement  ever  made  in  this  machine, 
was  in  the  addition  of  the  airchamber.  No  additional 
force  is  gained  by  its  use,  nor  is  its  mechanical  efficacy 
increased;  for  the  force  requisite  to  compel  the  water 
to  enter  this  chamber,  is  exactly  equal  to  the  elasticity 
of  the  compressed  air.  It  is  to  be  considered  as  a  mag- 
azine or  storehouse  of  power,  which  acts  uniformly  upon- 
the  fluid,  and  forces  it  out  in  a  continued  stream.  Be- 
sides this,  there  is  an  absolute  saving  of  the  fluid;  for 
in  every  depression  of  the  piston  of  the  common  force 
pump,  the  water  being  thrown  by  jerks,  a  consider- 
able quantity  must  fall  short  of  the  intended  object.  la 
the  oldfashioned  engine,  the  water  could  only  be  thrown 
by  jerks,  as  the  piston  was  forced  down  upon  the  fluid. 
It  is  on  this  principle  of  compressed  air,  that  the 
water  is  raised  from  the  Schuylkill,  to  supply  the  city 
of  Philadelphia.  It  is  directed  by  the  power  of  ma- 
dhinery  into  the  airchamber,  whence  it  is  forced  upward 
to  a  great  height  on  the  hill,  and  empties  into  the  ba- 
sins, from  which  it  is  led  to  the  city. 

There  are  numerous  applications  of  this  property  of 
the  atmosphere  to  various  artificial  fountains.  Some  of 
them  are  so  formed  as  to  contain  all  the  air  naturally 
required  for  their  operation.  Others  depend  upon  a 
suitable  quantity  being  first  injected  by  a  condensing 
syringe. 

The  difference  between  this  syringe  and  an  airpump 
consists  merely  in  the  inversion  of  both  valves,  whereby 
the  action  of  the  instrument  is  reversed.  Each  valve 
opening  downward,  it  is  easily  perceived  when  the  pistou 
is  raised,  that  the  air  must  pass  downward  through  the 
valve,  and  when  it  is  depressed,  this  air  not  beinff 
able  to  escape  upwards,  must  he  forced  down  through 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  65 


the  lower  valve  into  any  vessel  connected  with  the  end 
of  the  cylinder. 

This  instrument  is  called  a  condenser,  and  is  used 
in  all  cases  where  we  wish  to  force  more  air  into  a  vessel 
than  it  naturally  contains.  An  experiment  fully  exhib- 
iting this  effect,  may  be  shown  by  connecting  with 
the  end  of  the  condenser,  a  vessel  whose  only  opening 
has  been  covered  with  gum  elastic  or  India  rubber. 
The  first  depression  of  the  piston  will  cause  this  cov- 
ering to  protrude,  and  a  repetition  will  increase  the 
distention. 

AIRGUN. 

The  most  wonderful  effect  of  condensed  air  is  exhibited 
by  the  airgun.  This  instrument  differs  from  a  common 
gun,  in  having  a  receptacle  for  air,  which  may  either  be 
a  hollow  ball  screwed  to  the  lower  end  of  the  barrel  at 
its  under  part,  or  a  cavity  in  the  breech.  These  cham- 
bers, when  opened,  communicate  with  the  barrel,  and 
when  the  condensed  air  is  suffered  to  escape,  it  rushes 
into  the  barrel  and  drives  out  the  ball  with  surprising 
velocity. 

It  is  a  curious  fact,  that,  although  the  airpump  is  com- 
paratively a  modern  invention,  the  airgun,  so  nearly 
allied  to  it  in  the  construction  of  its  valves,  should  have 
existed  long  antecedent  to  it.  For  it  is  recorded  that 
an  airgun  was  made  for  Henry  IV.  by  Marin,  of 
Lisieux,  in  Normandy,  in  1408  ;  and  another  was  pre- 
served in  the  armory  of  Schmetau,  bearing  date  1474. 
That  in  present  use  is,  however,  very  different  in  effect 
from  those  originally  made,  which  discharged  but  one 
bullet  after  a  tedious  process  of  condensation.  While 
the  present  one  may  be  made  to  discharge  thirty  or 
forty  with  effect,  with  the  same  charge  of  air. 

The  airchamber  is  charged  by  screwing  it  to  the  end 
of  the  condenser,  and  forcing  it  down  suddenly  upon 
the  piston,  which  is  securely  held  by  the  feet  resting  on 
its  handle.  The  air  resting  on  the  piston,  is  thus  forced 
into  the  chamber  through  the  opening,  which  is  covered 
by  a  valve  opening  inwards.  At  each  depression  of 
the  chamber  upon  the  piston,  the  air  is  driven  up- 
wards, whence  it  cannot  return  on  account  of  the  valve. 

VOL.  i.  — NO.  in.  6* 


66  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


When  sufficient  air  has  been  condensed,  this  chamber 
is  to  be  removed  and  attached  to  the  gun,  which  is  then 
ready  to  receive  the  ball.  This  is  placed  in  the  mouth 
of  the  barrel,  and  is  made  to  fit  closely  by  first  laying  it 
on  a  small  piece  of  linen,  which,  when  forced  down  by 
the  rod,  perfectly  fills  the  bore. 

In  discharging  the  gun,  the  force  of  the  lock  is  di- 
rected by  a  small  steel  piston,  moving  through  a  collar, 
ngainst  the  valve  of  the  chamber.  The  air  instantly 
escapes  by  its  side,  and  rushing  into  the  barrel,  drives 
out  the  ball.  It  is  necessary  to  observe,  that  the  action 
of  the  lock  being  instantaneous,  the  power  of  the  piston 
is  lost  after  its  projection,  and  it  immediately  recedes, 
while  the  elasticity  of  the  air  forces  the  valve  to  its 
place,  thereby  preventing  the  escape  of  more  than  was 
intended.  The  discharges  may  be  continued  until  the 
resistance  of  the  condensed  air  is  reduced  to  its  ordinary 
pressure. 

There  were  two  other  applications  of  this  principle, 
recently  exhibited  in  this  city,  in  the  model  of  a  cannon 
and  in  a  common  walking-cane,  the  workmanship  of  Mr 
Adam  Stewart,  an  accomplished  mechanician.  The  im- 
provements in  his  use  of  the  principle,  evince  great 
skill  and  ingenuity  in  their  projector. 

The  estimates  offeree  possessed  by  the  airgun,  when 
fully  charged,  have  been  very  Various.  Even  in  its 
earliest  days  there  existed  wonderful  stories  of  its  power. 
By  many,  the  expansive  force  of  the  air  in  the  cham- 
ber, has  been  compared  with  that  of  gunpowder.  But 
the  only  opinions  worthy  of  attention  are  those  founded 
on  experiment.  The  smallest  result  of  the  force  of  gun- 
powder that  we  have  met  with,  is  that  given  by  Mr 
Robins.  His  calculation  was,  that  the  elastic  force  of 
the  fluid  produced  by  ignited  gunpowder,  is  at  least  one 
thousand  times  greater  than  the  ordinary  pressure  of 
the  air.  And  if  we  consider  that  pressure  to  be  fifteen 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  we  have  a  result  of  fifteen 
thousand  pounds  to  every  square  inch  of  the  surface 
which  confines  it. 

The  ordinary  charge  of  airguns,  has  been  equal  to 
between  forty  and  fifty  atmospheres,  or  between  six 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  67 

hundred  and  seven  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  to  the 
square  inch.  But  in  the  instruments  of  Mr  Stewart, 
this  pressure  has  been  very  much  exceeded.  And  we 
believe  he  has  produced  greater  condensation  in  the 
chamber  than  any  who  has  preceded  him. 

The  experiments  of  Bernoulli  and  Count  Rumford, 
resulted  in  their  belief  that  the  force  of  ignited  powder 
was  at  least  ten  thousand  times  greater  than  that  of  the 
ordinary  pressure  of  the  atmosphere. 

According  to  the  smallest  calculation,  we  perceive 
before  these  forces  can  be  equal,  a  pressure  of  at  least 
fifteen  thousand  pounds  to  the  square  inch  must  be 
produced  by  compressed  air. 

MATCH    SYRINGE. 

The  match  syringe  consists  of  a  simple  hollow  cylin- 
der, closed  at  one  end,  and  a  solid  piston  movable  its 
whole  length.  Its  object  is  suddenly  to  compress  the 
air  contained  in  the  cylinder,  and  render  its  heat  sensi- 
ble. The  assertion  that  much  heat  exists  in  the  atmos- 
phere is  proved  by  this  condensation.  For  by  com- 
pressing the  air  to  a  very  small  space,  the  particles  of 
heat  are  brought  into  so  close  contact,  as  to  set  fire  to 
an  inflammable  substance  fixed  in  the  bottom  of  the 
piston.  The  material  generally  employed,  is  a  piece  of 
dry  lint  which  has  been  previously  dipped  into  a  solution 
of  saltpetre.  The  piston,  armed  with  this,  being  sud- 
denly driven  to  the  base  of  the  barrel,  is  immediately 
thrown  back  by  the  elasticity  of  the  air,  and  exhibits  the 
intended  effect. 

A  singular  result  of  this  compression  is  continually 
shown  in  the  ordinary  changes  of  the  atmosphere.  Some 
might  suppose  that  the  wind  which  comes  down  from  a 
snow-covered  mountain,  would  excite  the  sensation  of 
great  cold.  But  they  must  recollect  that  the  density  of 
the  air  on  the  earth  and  on  the  mountain,  is  very  differ- 
ent. A  cubic  foot  of  air  on  the  ground,  contains  twice 
as  much  heat  as  a  cubic  foot  at  three  miles  and  a  half 
from  the  earth.  And  consequently,  the  air  which  de- 
scends is  gradually  increasing  in  density,  and  becomes 
of  a  similar  temperature  by  mechanical  compression. 


68  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


Hence,  we  perceive,  it  may  be  the  same  air  which 
waves  the  flowers  by  a  warm  breeze,  drinks  the  mois- 
ture that  broods  over  the  lake,  and  rising  with  it  to  the 
mountain  top,  deposits  it  in  crystals  on  its  summit. 

DIVING    BELL. 

This  is  an  inverted  vessel,  perfectly  tight  at  the  top 
and  sides,  and  open  at  the  bottom,  intended  to  carry 
men  down  under  water,  to  perform  various  occupations. 
Weights  are  arranged  around  its  lower  part  to  increase 
its  gravity,  and  cause  it  to  descend  perpendicularly. 

Its  principle  may  be  illustrated  by  inverting  a  tumbler 
in  water,  and  pressing  it  down  to  some  distance.  The 
inside  will  remain  perfectly  dry,  proving  that  the  resis- 
tance of  the  air  has  prevented  the  water  from  entering. 
The  water  cannot  enter  without  displacing  the  air,  any 
more  than  we  can  place  one  body  in  the  spot  occupied 
by  another,  without  first  removing  the  original  occupant. 
The  only  opening  in  the  bell  is  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
air  being  lighter  than  the  water,  cannot  descend  to 
escape  ;  hence  it  must  be  condensed  by  the  pressure 
from  below. 

A  beautiful  experiment,  illustrative  of  the  value  of  the 
diving  bell,  and  of  a  continual  supply  of  fresh  air,  may 
be  shown  by  inverting  a  large  tumbler  over  a  floating 
lighted  taper,  and  pressing  it  down  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel.  The  taper  will  continue  to  float,  although  sent 
down  the  whole  depth  of  the  water,  and  may  again  be 
brought  to  the  surface,  still  burning,  if  the  experiment 
be  quickly  performed.  If  this  be  not  attended  to,  the 
flame  will  be  extinguished  by  the  destruction  of  the 
oxygen  of  the  air,  the  place  of  which  will  be  supplied 
by  the  rising  water. 

The  flame  may  be  considered  analagous  to  an  indi- 
vidual, as  he  requires  the  same  oxygen  for  his  preser- 
vation which  nourishes  the  flame.  And  if  he  be  not 
supplied  with  fresh  air  by  artificial  means,  he  must  soon 
fall  a  victim  to  his  temerity. 

The  invention  of  the  diving  bell  is  universally  assigned 
to  the  16th  century.  Our  first  information  of  its  use  in 
Europe  is  that  of  Taisnier.  He  relates,  that  '  at  Toledo, 


THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


in  Spain,  in  the  year  1538,  he  saw,  in  the  presence  of 
the  Emperor  Charles  V.  and  about  ten  thousand  speo 
tators,  two  Greeks  let  themselves  down  under  vrater,  ifc 
a  large  inverted  kettle,  with  a  burning  light,  and  rigo 
up  again  without  being  wet.' 

After  this  time  it  became  more  known,  and  is  spoken 
of  in  the  works  of  Lord  Bacon,  who  describes  its  effects, 
emd  commends  its  value  in  facilitating  submarine  labor. 

Among  the  greatest  results  of  the  use  of  this  machine, 
may  be  considered  those  of  William  Phipps,  a  native  of 
this  country,  who,  in  the  year  1683,  under  leave  of 
Charles  II.,  formed  a  project  for  searching  for  a  rich 
Spanish  ship  sunk  on  the  coast  of  Hispaniola.  After 
many  trials,  he  succeeded  in  bringing  up  from  the  depth 
of  six  or  seven  fathoms,  treasures  to  the  value  of 
,£200,000  sterling.  He  afterwards  received  the  honor 
of  knighthood,  and  died  in  London  in  1693. 

Diving  bells  are  made  of  different  forms  and  materials. 
When  made  of  wood,  they  are  generally  about  five  feet 
high,  four  feet  broad  at  the  top,  and  six  feet  at  the  bot- 
tom. When  made  of  iron  they  are  sometimes  of  this 
form,  but  more  frequently  are  made  to  resemble  the 
lower  half  of  a  cone.  The  one  used  at  Hov.'th,  neat 
Dublin,  is  an  oblong  iron  chest,  six  feet  long,  four  broad, 
and  five  high,  and  weighs  about  four  tons.  It  has  two 
Seats  capable  of  holding  four  persons. 

Their  descent  in  water  depends  on  the  law  of  Hydro- 
statics, that  l  a  body  immersed  in  a  fluid,  displaces 
exactly  its  own  bulk  of  it.'  And  consequently,  that  it 
may  be  sunk,  it  must  be  made  heavier  than  a  bulk  of 
water  equal  to  itself  in  size.  Therefore,  in  calculating 
the  weight  requisite  to  sink  a  bell,  we  first  ascertain 
the  number  of  cubic  feet  it  contains,  and  knowing  the 
average  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  water  to  be  about 
sixtytwo  and  a  half  pounds,  we  multiply  the  bulk  by  the 
weight  of  the  water,  and  the  quotient  will  be  the  power 
requisite  to  balance  the  upward  pressure.  An  excess 
of  weight  is  then  added  to  facilitate  its  descent. 

We  are  particularly  indebted  to  Dr  Halley  for  the 
improvements  in  this  machine,  and  for  the  means  where- 
by individuals  are  enabled  to  continue  a  long  time  under 


70  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


water.  He  substituted  glasses  in  the  top  of  the  bell 
for  the  lamp  that  had  been  used,  and  suggested  the  use 
of  airbarrels,  which  were  sent  down  by  weights,  to 
supply  the  change  of  air  requisite  for  respiration. 

Before  his  time  many  inconveniences  were  suffered 
by  submarine  laborers.  The  bell  was  obliged  to  be 
frequently  raised  to  let  out  the  contaminated  air,  and 
though  there  have  been  many  suggestions  offered  since 
his  improvements,  yet  the  bells  now  made  are  generally 
similar  to  the  one  he  describes. 

The  machine  is  supplied  with  air  in  two  ways,  de- 
pending on  its  depth.  In  the  ordinary  labors  about 
docks  and  shallow  streams,  a  force  pump,  or  condensing 
syringe  is  connected  with  a  tube  which  leads  to  the  top 
of  the  bell.  By  this,  air  may  be  driven  down  into  it, 
and  the  water  kept  entirely  from  rising  one  inch.  But 
when  the  depth  is  great,  the  power  requisite  to  work 
the  pump  is  greatly  increased.  For  at  the  depth  of 
thirtyfour  feet  the  pressure  from  below  is  equal  to  fif- 
teen pounds  to  the  inch,  and  so  on  in  proportion  as  it 
descends. 

This  was  remedied  by  the  suggestion  of  Dr  Halley, 
who  sent  down  barrels  of  air  to  an  individual,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  direct  this  air  into  the  bell. 

The  means  of  communication  from  those  below  is 
effected  through  cords.  Two  lines  pass  from  the  in- 
side of  the  machine  under  the  bottom,  upward  to  the 
hand  of  a  person  whose  duty  is  -to  observe  the  signals. 
In  the  bell,  as  well  as  above,  is  a  signal  board,  whereon 
those  signals  are  marked.  To  make  this  more  easily 
understood,  we  will  subjoin  a  copy  of  one  of  these  signal 
boards,  which  was  used  in  this  city,  a  few  years  ago, 
in  building  the  Marine  Railway. 


1  Pull,   To  the  right. 
S  I-ulh,  To  the  left. 
3  Pulls,  Forward. 
4  Pulls,  Outward. 

1  Pull,   In  trouble. 
2  Pulls,  Hoist  the  bell. 
3  Pulls,  Cant  tho  bell. 

iPull,  Stop  lowering. 
2  Pulls,  Lower  away. 
3  Pulls,  Hoist  a  little. 
4  Pulls,  Stop  hoisting. 

When  the  bell  is  made  of  cast  iron,  the  signals  may 
be  given  in  this  way  or  by  sounds.  A  stroke  on  the 
bell  with  a  hammer  is  easily  heard  above,  and  a  list  of 


THE  ATMOSPHERE.  71 


signals  so  arranged,  is  used  in  the  manner  thus  de- 
scribed. 

The  diving  bell  has  been  applied  to  many  useful  pur- 
poses, as  the  construction  of  marine  works,  the  eleva- 
tion of  sunken  vessels,  and  the  recovery  of  treasures 
from  the  bottom  of  rivers. 

But  one  of  its  most  singular  applications,  has  been  in 
blasting  rocks  at  a  considerable  distance  under  water. 
At  Howth,  in  Ireland,  persons  descended,  and  drilled 
and  charged  the  rock,  and  carried  up  a  tin  tube  to  the 
surface,  through  which  the  fire  was  to  be  applied.  This 
was  done  by  dropping  a  piece  of  red  hot  iron  down  upon 
the  powder. 

CONCLUSION. 

There  is  no  subject  of  natural  philosophy  more  inter- 
esting than  the  one  we  have  just  considered.  It  presents 
so  many  beauties,  and  so  great  a  variety,  that  we  are 
surprised  that  a  substance  with  which  we  are  so  familiar 
can  possess  such  features. 

Until  Philosophy  began  her  researches  mankind  knew 
nothing  of  the  subtile  fluid  which  surrounds  the  earth, 
and  which  extends  so  far  from  its  surface.  They  had 
no  idea  of  the  effect  of  respiration  ;  why  a  flame  was 
enkindled  by  forcing  a  current  of  air  through  a  dull  fire, 
and  why  fermentation  was  facilitated  by  an  exposition 
to  the  atmosphere.  They  enjoyed  the  delightful  breeze 
which  gathered  the  night-dew  from  the  flower,  and 
passed  along  laden  with  its  fragrance  ;  but  the  power 
of  the  air  was  only  known  to  them  in  the  wind,  which  in 
its  fury  lashed  the  ocean  into  foaming  billows,  and  swept 
down  the  trees  of  the  forest  and  the  habitations  of  men. 
They  knew  nothing  of  the  air  but  by  its  effects,  as  the 
child  observes  the  motion  of  the  hand  of  the  clock,  with'1 
out  comprehending  its  cause. 

There  is  something  peculiarly  interesting  in  the  dis- 
covery of  causes.  Effects  with  which  we  are  familiar 
soon  cease  to  excite  attention,  even  when  the  subject  is 
stupendous  ;  but  when  we  have  traced  anything,  how- 
ever simple,  to  its  first  cause,  we  experience  delight 


72  THE  ATMOSPHERE. 


and  satisfaction.  How  interesting,  for  instance,  is  the 
knowledge  of  the  composition  of  light,  for  by  an  exami^ 
nation  of  its  constituents,  we  are  enabled  to  account  for 
the  color  of  the  sky.  How  curious  is  the  fact  that 
ohemistry  exhibits  in  the  composition  of  the  atmosphere, 
whereby  certain  proportions  of  oxygen  and  nitrogen  r&- 
sult  in  a  compound  of  qualities  so  useful.  In  other 
proportions  they  form  the  nitrous  oxide  or  exhilarating 
gas,  and  again,  in  others,  nitric  acid,  or  aqua  fortis. 

The  science  of  chemistry  is  filled  with  this  variety  of 
combinations  of  the  same  materials  resulting  in  different 
compounds,  and  by  the  aid  of  analysis,  the  chemist  is 
able  to  separate  the  constituents,  and  explain  the  cause 
of  the  result.  He  shows  us  that  the  difference  between 
the  air  we  breathe,  exhilarating  gas,  and  aqua  fortis, 
merely  depends  on  the  quantity  of  oxygen  employed; 
and  that  the  only  philosophical  difference  of  ice,  water, 
and  vapor,  consists  in  their  relative  proportions  of  heal. 
By  experiment,  also,  Philosophy  has  ascertained  the 
weight  of  the  atmosphere,  and  informs  us  of  its  precise 
pressure  on  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth.  It  tells  us 
that  the  motion  of  a  fly  on  the  perpendicular  plane  of 
glass,  the  process  of  drinking,  and  the  power  of  the  old 
Steam  engine,  are  effected  by  the  pressure  of  the  air. 

By  the  aid  of  a  very  few  instruments,  all  these  facts 
have  been  discovered,  which  prove  to  us  that  nature 
develops  more  curious  circumstances  than  fancy  can 
conceive,  and  at  the  same  time  assures  us  that  her  most 
sublime  operations  may  be  explained  on  the  simple  prin- 
ciples of  philosophy. 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS 

NUMBER    IV. 


GRAVITATION. 

INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

PERHAPS  the  reader,  on  seeing  the  title  of  this  tract, 
will  be  disposed  to  doubt  whether  the  subject  is  a  use- 
ful or  interesting  one.  We  all  know,  it  may  be  said, 
that  bodies  fall  towards  the  earth,  and  what  can  philoso- 
phers teach  us  in  addition  to  this  simple  knowledge  of 
the  fact,  than  merely  to  give  to  the  generalojaw,  the 
learned  name  of  Gravitation?  Giving  a  name* is  no  ex- 
planation, i. 

Let  us  attend  one  "moment  to  what  is  meant  by  an  ex- 
planation. A  savage  sees,; a  sailor,  who  has  landed  on 
his  shores,  point  his  gun  towards  the  wild  animal,  bound- 
ing through  the  forest.  A  flash  and  an  explosion  suc- 
ceed, and  the  animal  stops* suddenly  in  his  progress, — 
falls  bleeding  to  the  ground,—  and  dies.  If  the  aston- 
ished native  ask-  an  explanation,  he  is  told  that  the  in- 
strument which  produced  the/effect  is  hollow;  —  that  it 
contained  an  explosive  powder  and  a  heavy  ball ;  —  that 
the  gunner's  finger,  by  a  motion  too  small'  for  him  to  per- 
ceive, produced  a  collision  of  ftint  and  st'eel,  —  and  that, 
by  the  resulting  spark,  the  charge  is  inflamed,  and  the 
ball  is  forced  through  the  air,  with  a  rapidity  which  his 
eye  cannot  follow,  and  which  is  fatal  to  the  object  of  its 
aim. 

This  is  one  kind  of  explanation.  It  consists,  as  every 
one  will  easily  see,  of  bringing  to  view  circumstances 
which  intervene  between  the  cause  and  the  effect.;  and 
which,  before,  were  hidden.  The  pointing  of  the  p~un  is 
the  cause,  the  death  of  the  animal  the  effect,  and  the 
collision  of  the  flint  and  steel,  —  the  explosion  ofthepow- 

VOL.  i  —  NO.  iv.  7 


74  GRAVITATION. 

der,  —  and  the  flight  of  the  ball,  are  the  circumstances 
intervening,  which  were  unknown  to  the  inquirer  until 
the  explanation  brought  them  to  light. 

Now  take  another  case.  A  child  sees  a  bar  of  steel, 
balanced  upon  a  pivot,  in  a  peculiar  case  with  a  glass 
top.  He  finds  upon  moving  the  case  that  the  bar  turns 
upon  its  pivot,  so  as  to  point  in  all  cases  in  one  direction. 
He  too  asks  an  explanation,  and  is  told,  that  a  certain 
kind  of  steel  bars,  when  freely  suspended,  always  arrange 
themselves  in  a  North  and  South  direction. 

This  is  another  kind  of  explanation.  It  will  be  per- 
ceived that  it  is  totally  different  from  the  other.  It  men- 
tions no  intervening  circumstances  between  the  cause 
and  the  effect.  It  merely  points  out  other  phenomena  of 
the  same  kind;  —  shows  what  is  essential  in  the  arrange- 
ment which  produces  this  effect,  and  which  will  insure 
its  repetition,  —  and  thus,  in  fine,  describes  in  general 
terms  the  class  of  phenomena  to  which  this  belongs. 

JNfow  it  will  be  evident,  by  a  moment's  reflection,  that 
such  an  explanation  as  this  is  nearly  if  not  quite  as  vaj li- 
able as  the  other.  Without  it  the  inquirer  might  be  led 
into  a  great  many  errors.  He  might  suppose  that  the 
glass,  -  the  shape  of  the  room,  —  the  form  of  the  bar,  — 
the  skill  of  the  operator,  —  were  concerned  in  the  result. 
The  explanation  has  dispelled  all  these,  —  pointed  out 
to  him  what  is  really  essential,  —  and  given  him  all  the 
knowledge  which  can  be  of  any  practical  benefit.  There 
are  many  phenomena  which  admit  of  no  other  kind  of 
explanation  than  this;  for  this  simple  reason  —  that  in  re- 
gard to  them,  we  know  of  no  links  connecting  the  cause 
and  effect,  —  and  we  must  therefore  only  ascertain  what 
are  the  circumstances  essential  for  the  production  of  the 
effect,  and  give  to  all  the  phenomena  of  the  same  class 
one  general  name.  This  is  what  we  design  to  do  with 
the  subject  before  us. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  was  the  individual  whose  discoveries 
brought  to  view  and  established  the  law  of  gravitation. 
When  first  led  to  think  of  the  subject  by  seeing  an  apple 
fall  to  the  ground,  he  did  not  attempt  to  find  an  explana- 
tion of  the  kind  like  the  first  mentioned  above ;  i.  c.  to 
discover  something  intervening  between  the  earth  and 


GRAVITATION.  75 


the  apple,  which  should  bring  the  latter  down.  His  ob- 
ject was  to  learn  what  other  facts  were  analogous  to  this, 
and  what  other  phenomena  were  produced  in  the  same 
way,  expecting,  when  all  these  should  be  ascertained, 
that  he  would  be  able  to  express  the  whole  in  general 
terms,  and  deduce  from  them  a  general  law.  His  in- 
quiries were  completely  successful.  He  obtained  the 
following  general  law : 

All  material  objects,  have,  under  all  circumstances,  a 
tendency  to  approach  each  other. 

That  this  is  a  universal  law,  or  in  other  words,  that  it 
is  universally  true,  has  been  proved  by  observation  in  a 
great  variety  of  particulars.  These  we  shall  proceed  to 
describe. 


1.     GRAVITATION  BETWEEN  THE  HEAVENLY  BODIES. 

For  a  long  time  the  motions  of  the  heavenly  bodies 
defied  all  attempts  at  accurate  calculation.  The  various 
theories  advanced  would  not  account  for  the  facts.  The 
variations  from  circular  orbits,  the  occasional  slight  ir- 
regularities in  some  cases  returning  at  regular  intervals, 
and  sometimes  entirely  unexpected,  received  no  solution. 
But  the  supposition  that  every  material  body  has  a  ten- 
dency to  move  towards  every  other,  perfectly  explains  the 
whole.  Not  only  are  the  great  regular  motions  of  the 
various  primary  and  secondary  planets  about  their  cen- 
tres fully  explained,  but  all  the  exact  forms  of  the  curves 
in  which  they  move,  and  every  irregularity  in  the  motion 
is  fully  accounted  for  by  this  simple  supposition. 

The  manner  in  which  the  revolutions  of  the  planets 
about  their  centres  is  produced,  may  be  thus  illustrated. 

Suspend  by  a  string  from  the  wall,  a  small  leaden 
weight.  If  left  to  itself,  it  hangs  perpendicularly,  and  is 
at  rest.  If  now  it  is  drawn  up  from  the  centre,  it  tends 
to  return  to  the  centre,  and  will,  if  liberated,  swing  to 
and  fro  like  a  pendulum.  If,  however,  instead  of  simply 
letting  it  fall,  it  is  thrown  off  upon  one  side,  it  will  pass 
round  in  an  eliptical  or  circular  orbit.  It  will  be  very 


GRAVITATIOX. 


evident  that  this  motion  will  be  produced  by  the  united 
influence  of  the  force  with  which  the  weight  was  thrown 
off  by  the  hand,  and  the  tendency  down  towards  the  cen- 
tre. This  last  represents  gravitation.  And  although 
the  motion  of  the  weight  in  this  experiment  is  in  many 
respects  different  from  that  of  a  planet,  yet  the  illustra- 
tion is  good  in  this  respect ;  viz.  it  shows  how  the  con- 
stant operation  of  a  tendency  towards  the  centre,  may 
cause  a  body  to  revolve  about  that  centre  in  a  circular  or 
eliptical  orbit. 

It  will,  however,  be  justly  said,  that  if  the  tendency  of 
one  body  to  another  is  universal,  it  will  be  apparent  not 
only  between  a  planet  and  the  sun,  but  between  one  planet 
and  another.  This  is  the  fact.  In  the  adjoining  dia- 
gram, let  S  rep- 
resent the  sun,  M 
Mars,  and  J  Jupi- 
ter. Whenever 
the  two  planets, 
in  their  regular 
revolutions,  pass 
near  each  other, 
each  is  drawn  out 
of  its  regular  path. 
Instead  ofpassing 
in  the  curves  of 
their  orbits,  they 
approach  each 
other  and  move 
in  the  paths  rep- 
resented by  the  dotted  lines  in  the  figure.  When  Mars, 
which  revolves  more  rapidly  than  Jupiter,  passes  beyond 
the  influence  of  the  latter,  both  return  to  their  original 
paths. 

There  are  many  other  disturbances  in  the  planetary 
motions,  which  no  ingenuity  could  explain  before  the 
simple  principle  of  gravitation  was  discovered.  They 
are  so  numerous,  and  correspond  so  exactly  with  the  the- 
ory, as  to  leave  not  the  slightest  room  to  doubt,  that 
among  all  the  heavenly  bodies,  sufficiently  near  us  to 
have  their  motions  observed,  there  is  this  uniform  ten- 
dency to  move  towards  each  other. 


GRAVITATION.  77 


These  disturbances  are,  however,  though  great  in  num- 
ber, much  less  in  amount  than  we  should  suppose  by 
looking  at  astronomical  diagrams.  The  reason  is,  that 
the  relative  magnitudes  and  distances  of  these  bodies  are 
very  incorrectly  represented  in  these  diagrams.  If  the 
sun  is  represented  by  a  ball  75  feet  in  diameter,  the  earth 
would  be  at  the  distance  of  a  mile  and  a  half,  and  would 
be  about  the  size  of  a  man's  head,  and  the  next  planet 
beyond  the  earth  would  be  three  quarters  of  a  mile  far- 
ther, and  about  half  as  large.  It  is  impossible  to  repre- 
sent these  proportions  on  paper  of  a  moderate  size,  and 
accordingly,  in  all  diagrams  the  sun  and  planets  are 
brought  much  nearer  to  each  other  in  proportion  to  their 
size,  than  they  are  in  reality.  It  will  be  evident,  from  a 
slight  consideration  of  the  true  proportions,  that  the  influ- 
ence of  the  planets  upon  each  other  must  be  very  incon- 
siderable compared  with  that  which  is  exerted  upon  them  by 
the  immense  body  which  occupies  the  centre  of  the  system. 

2.     GRAVITATION    BETWEEN  ONE  HEAVENLY  BODY  AND 
THE   PARTS  OP  ANOTHEIl. 

If  the  facts  stated  under  the  preceding  head  were  all 
which  had  been  observed,  gravitation  would  not  be  pioved 
to  be  a  universal  laic  of  matter.  It  would  be  doubtful 
whether  the  attraction  which  causes  two  heavenly  bodies 
to  approach,  was  a  property  belonging  to  every  particle 
of  which  each  was  composed,  or  whether  it  pertained 
exclusively  to  some  substance  which  each  contained,  but 
which  formed  only  a  part  of  each.  It  might  not  have 
been  an  improbable  supposition  that  some  central  mass  in 
each  might  alone  possess  the  attracting  power,  and  cause 
the  bodies  to  which  they  respectively  belonged,  to  ap- 
proach each  other.  This  supposition  is,  however,  pre- 
vented by  the  following  facts. 

The  Parts  of  the  earth  gravitate  towards  the  heavenly, 
bodies.  The  waters  of  the  ocean  and  the  atmosphere, 
the  only  bodies  connected  with  the  earth  which  are  ca> 
pable  of  separate  motion,  have  a  motion  separate  from 
that  of  the  whole  body  of  the  earth.  These  waters,  and 
this  atmosphere  rise  towards  the  sun  and  the  moon  on 

VOL.    I NO.  IV.  7* 


78  GRAVITATION. 


those  parts  of  the  earth  which  are  towards  those  bodies. 
This  conclusively  proves  that  the  gravitation  of  the  earth 
towards  the  sun  and  moon  is  not  simply  the  gravitation 
of  the  earth  as  a  whole  or  of  some  nucleus  in  the  centre, 
but  of  the  various  parts  of  the  earth,  as  separate  and  dis- 
tinct portions  of  matter. 

There  is  another  phenomenon,  which  was  observed 
long  before  it  was  understood,  and  which  is  decisive 
proof  of  the  same  point.  The  earth  is  not  exactly  spheri- 
cal but  is  fuller  in  its  shape  around  the  equator.  Now 
if  the  attraction  of  the  earth  to  the  sun  is  owing  to  some 
peculiar  substance  in  its  centre,  it  is  plain  that  this  sur- 
plus about  the  equatorial  regions  will  have  no  effect  upon 
its  motions.  If,  however,  this  surplus  gravitates  towards 
the  sun,  as  all  the  rest  of  the  matter  of  which  the  earth 
is  composed,  it  is  plain  that  in  some  peculiar  circumstan- 
ces it  may  cause  a  modification  of  its  motions.  This  last 
is  found  to  be  the  fact ;  and  it  proves  that  the  solid  parts 
of  the  earth  as  well  as  the  liquid  and  gaseous,  have  sepa- 
rately a  tendency  towards  other  material  bodies  which 
come  into  their  vicinity. 

3.     GRAVITATION  BETWEEN  THE  EARTH  AND  THE  LOOSE 
MASSES  UPON  ITS  SURFACE. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  remark  that  gravitation  is 
manifested  in  this  case  by  the  falling  of  bodies,  and  by 
their  weight.  That  there  is  no  one  downward  direction, 
into  which  all  bodies  tend,  is  evident  from  the  fact  that 
upon  different  sides  of  the  earth,  bodies  fall  in  different 
directions  towards  it.  A  stone  in  America,  and  another 
in  Asia,  falling  to  the  ground,  will  move  directly  towards 
each  other.  All  these  motions  are  evidently  the  result 
of  a  tendency  of  all  bodies  to  move  towards  the  great 
mass  of  matter  constituting  the  earth. 

The  air  gravitates  ;  that  is,  is  attracted  by  the  earth,  and 
rests  with  weight  upon  it.  That  portion  of  the  air  which 
is  near  the  surface  is  loaded  with  the  burden  of  all  that  is 
above,  and  is  compressed  by  it  in  a  much  smaller  space 
than  it  would  naturally  occupy.  This  pressure  produces 


GRAVITATION.  79 


a  great  many  curious  effects.*  If  a  vacancy  is  anywhere 
produced,  the  surrounding  air  is  forced  by  this  pressure 
violently  into  it.  If  the  air  is  removed  from  a  bladder, 
the  sides  are  forced  together,  and  no  effort  can  separate 
them  so  as  to  leave  within  an  empty  space.  When  the 
piston  or  box  of  a  pump  rises,  it  brings  up  with  it  the  air 
within  the  pump ;  the  load  of  air  upon  the  water  around 
it  forces  the  liquid  up  into  the  space  thus  left.  When 
the  air  is  exhausted  by  a  suitable  apparatus  from  a  thin 
glass  vessel,  its  sides  will  often  be  crushed  inwards  by 
the  pressure  of  the  surrounding  air. 

It  was  well  known  that  the  atmosphere  would  rush 
with  violence  into  any  vacant  space  long  before  the  facts 
were  referred  to  the  right  cause,  and  there  was  a  long 
and  obstinate  controversy  among  the  philosophers,  wheth- 
er the  phenomena  in  question  were  really  owing  to  the 
weight  and  pressure  of  the  air,  or  to  What  one  party  called 
Nature's  abhorrence  of  a  vacuum.  This  controversy  was 
at  last  settled  by  experiments  made  upon  a  certain  moun- 
tain in  the  south  of  France,  by  which  it  appeared  that 
the  tendency  of  the  air  to  rush  into  the  vacant  space  was 
decidedly  less  upon  the  elevation,  than  at  the  ordinary 
level  of  the  ground.  Now,  as  in  ascending  an  eminence, 
we  pass  above  a  considerable  portion  of  the  atmosphere, 
it  was  natural  that  what  remained  above  the  summit, 
should  press  less  heavily  than  the  whole.  The  difference 
of  the  effects  was  therefore  very  easily  accounted  for,  on 
the  supposition  that  they  were  both  owing  to  the  pressure 
of  the  air ;  and  as  it  was  absurd  to  suppose  that  Nature's 
abhorrence  ef  a  vacuum  would  be  less  upon  a  mountain, 
than  in  a  valley,  the  advocates  of  this  latter  theory  gave 
up  the  point.f 

The  gravitation  of  the  air  may  also  be  proved,  as  it  often 
has  been,  by  a  very  simple  experiment.  A  vessel,  filled 
as  usual  with  air,  is  weighed.  The  air  is  then  removed 
by  an  air  pump,  and  the  vessel,  now  empty,  is  weighed 
again.  The  difference,  which  is  very  sensible,  shows 
the  weight  of  the  air  which  had  been  removed. 

It  may  be  at  first  imagined  that  there  are  some  excep- 

*  See  No.  II.,  p.  54.  t  See  No.  III.,  p.  41. 


GRAVITATION 


tions  to  the  remark  that  all  bodies  on  or  near  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  tend  to  move  towards  it.  Smoke  ascends ; 
vapors  rise ;  clouds  float  gently  in  the  sky ;  and  bal- 
loons, filled  with  peculiar  gases,  soar  into  the  air,  bear- 
ing with  them  heavy  burdens.  These,  however,  far  from 
being  exceptions  to  the  rule,  are  only  instances  of  its 
perfect  operation.  A  block  of  wood,  though  it  has  in 
itself  a  tendency  to  fall,  will  rise  to  the  surface  of  the 
water,  into  which  it  is  plunged.  The  water  having  a 
stronger  tendency  to  move  towards  the  earth,  presses 
down  under  it,  and  it  rises  by  the  very  power  of  gravita- 
tion itself.  The  gravitating  air,  in  the  same  manner, 
forces  up  the  vapor,  the  smoke  and  the  balloon,  all  of 
which  would  fall  with  the  rapidity  of  a  stone,  if  nothing 
resisted  their  motion. 

4.     GRAVITATION    BETWEEN    SMALL  BODIES  AND  PARTS 
OP  THE  EARTH. 

The  facts  which  have  been  mentioned  under  the  pre- 
ceding heads,  show  the  existence  and  the  power  of  grav- 
itation in  cases  so  numerous  and  diversified  as  to  render 
it  highly  probable  that  this  force  is  a  universal  property 
of  matter.  There  remains,  however,  much  to  be  added 
to  the  evidence ;  and  one  very  interesting  class  of  exper- 
iments are  those  which  show  the  attracting  power  of 
mountains.  It  was  suggested  by  Newton,  that  if  the 
law  which  he  discovered  were  a  universal  law,  a  plumb 
line  suspended  by  the  side  of  a  mountain,  would  deviate 
from  a  perpendicular  by  the  attraction  of  the  mountain. 
The  experiment  has  since  been  made  in  two  instances, 
and  with  complete  success.  It  was  first  tried  in  South 
America,  by  the  side  of  the  celebrated  Mountain,  Chim- 
borazo,  by  some  French  Mathematicians.  It  was  ascer- 
tained by  very  accurate  experiments  that  a  plumb  line 
suspended  near  the  mountain  was  drawn  out  of  its  per- 
pendicular towards  the  mountain  eight  seconds.  This,  it 
will  be  perceived,  is  a  very  small  angle,  and  the  deviation 
would  be  expected  to  be  small,  if  we  consider  how  small 
is  the  mountain  compared  with  the  whole  bulk  of  the 
earth.  There  is  every  reason  to  place  confidence  in  the 
correctness  of  the  result. 


GRAVITATION.  81 


Not  many  years  after,  a  similar  experiment  was  tried  in 
Scotland,  upon  Mt.  Schehallien,  with  a  similar  result ;  and 
the  influence  of  the  mountain  in  drawing  the  weight  from 
a  true  perpendicular  was  established  beyond  a  doubt.* 

The  particular  object  of  the  experiment  with  Schehal- 
lien, was  not  to  prove  the  reality  of  the  attraction  exert- 
ed by  the  mountain,  for  this  was  considered  as  previously 
settled,  but,  to  prove  from  the  amount  of  the  attraction 
accurately  ascertained,  the  iveigkt  of  the,  earth.  The 
size  of  the  mountain  was  ascertained,  and  also  its  at- 
tracting force,  and  these  were  compared  with  thxxse  of 
the  earth,  and  the  result  showed  that  the  earth  attracted 
more  in  proportion  to  its  size  than  the  mountain.  The 
philosophers  inferred  from  this  that  it  was  composed  of 
heavier,  i.  e.  denser  materials,  in  the  proportion  of  about 
two  to  one. 

5.     GRAVITATION  OF  SMALL  BODIES  ON  THE  EARTH'S 
SURFACE  TOWARDS  EACH  OTHER. 

The  preceding  facts  and  statements,  going  as  far  as 
they  do  towards  establishing  the  fact  that  every  portion 
of  matter  attracts  and  is  attracted  by  a',1  other  matter, 
will  very  naturally  suggest  the  inquiry  whether  this 
power  is  perceptible  between  small  bodies  on  the  earth's 
surface.  It  will  be  said  that  if  this  tendency  of  matter 
to  approach  matter  is  universal,  two  balls  placed  upon  a 
level  table  would  have  a  tendency  to  roll  together.  This 
tendency  might  exist,  and  yet  not  be  easily  manifested ; 
for  an  attractive  power,  which,  in  so  large  a  mass  as  the 
earth,  might  have  power  to  move  rocks  and  avalanches 

*  The  reader  may  perhaps  have  the  curiosity  to  inquire  how  the 
deviation  of  the  plumb  line  from  the  perpendicular,  and  particularly 
its  exact  amount  could  be  sustained.  A  telescope  was  fixed  in  a 
perpendicular  position  by  a  plumb  line,  and  then  moved  from 
its  position  until  it  pointed  towards  a  certain  fixed  star.  The  dis- 
tance to  which  it  was  moved  was  noted.  The  apparatus  was  then 
taken  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  mountain,  and  the  observation  re- 
peated. It  was  found  that  the  distance  to  which  the  telescope  was 
moved,  was  different  at  the  two  stations.  This  would  not  have  been 
the  fact,  if  the  plumb  lines  had  been  parallel.  For  the  fixed  star  is 
at  so  great  a  distance  that  its  apparent  direction  would  be  in  both 
cases  the  same. 


82  GRAVITATION. 


with  prodigious  violence,  might  exist  in  bodies  so  small, 
as  the  balls  upon  the  table,  and  yet  not  be  sufficient  to 
overcome  the  difficulties  which  impede  their  motion.  The 
little  inequalities  of  the  table,  too  small  to  be  perceived 
by  the  senses  ;  the  resistance  of  the  air  which  must  be 
removed  from  between  them  if  they  come  together,  and 
the  want  of  perfect  regularity  in  their  form,  would,  per- 
haps, be  sufficient  to  prevent  the  motion  taking  place, 
when  there  was  a  real  tendency  to  it.  If  the  two  balls 
are  suspended  by  strings,  and  are  brought  nearly  into 
contact,  the  obstruction  to  motion  would  be  less  than 
before ;  still  the  balls  in  moving  towards  each  other  must 
evidently  rise  slightly,  on  account  of  the  nature  of  their 
suspension.  Consequently  their  tendency  to  come  to- 
gether must  be  sufficient  partially  to  lift  them,  or  its  ef- 
fects would  not  be  visible. 

Various  ingenious  plans  have  been  devised  for  sus- 
pending bodies  in  such  a  manner  as  to  render  sensible 
their  gravitation  towards  each  other.  An  instrument 
called,  from  the  name  of  its  maker,  Cavendish's  machine, 
accomplished  the  object.  Two  leaden  balls  suspended 
by  an  apparatus  so  contrived  as  to  diminish  as  much  as 
possible  resistance  and  friction,  gravitated  sensibly  to- 
wards each  other.  The  method  adopted  was  very  similar 
in  principle  to  that  employed  by  Mr  Coulomb,  for  render- 
ing sensible  other  weak  attractions.  This  method,  very 
simple  and  easily  imitated,  he  applied  not  only  to  demon- 
strating gravitation  between  small  bodies,  but  also  to  ren- 
dering sensible,  and  to  measuring  very  many  other  weak 
forces.  His  instrument  was  substantially  a  bar  connecting 
two  heavy  leaden  balls,  a  and  6, 
and  suspended  by  the  string  d, 
c,  attached  to  the  centre  of  the 
bar.  If  now  a  heavy  mass  be 
brought  near  the  ball  b,  the  lat- 
ter may  move  towards  it  with- 
out being  lifted  at  all,  for  it 
may  move  round  horizontally 
only  twisting  the  string  cd.  If 
it  move  but  little,  the  twist  or  (~~\_ 

slight  force,  and  as"this  is  all 


torsion  of  the  string  is  a  very         „ 


O 


GRAVITATION.  83 

which  is  to  be  overcome,  the  whole  apparatus  is  called 
the  torsion  balance.  When  a  similar  contrivance  is  re- 
sorted to  to  detect  and  measure  weak  forces  in  Electri- 
city or  Magnetism,  little  circles  of  paper  in  the  former, 
and  small  magnetic  bars  in  the  latter  case,  are  substitut- 
ed for  the  leaden  balls.  For  these  purposes,  a  single 
silk  worm's  thread,  is  generally  used  for  the  line  to  which 
the  bar  is  suspended.* 

By  these  and  similar  experiments,  the  last  remaining 
link  is  furnished  to  that  beautiful  chain  of  inductive  rea- 
soning, by  which  universal  gravitation  is  established; 
and  the  whole  series  is  abundantly  sufficient  to  satisfy 
any  mind  by  which  it  is  attentively  considered,  that  the 
great  Creator  has  made  it  an  unvarying  and  universal 
law,  that  every  particle  of  matter  draws  towards  itself 
every  other,  and  is  itself  reciprocally  and  equally  drawn. 
How  simple  is  the  principle;  —  how  immense  the  variety 
and  greatness  of  its  effects  !  If  this  single  principle,  con- 
sidered in  connexion  with  the  unconceivable  multiplicity 
of  useful  effects  which  result  from  it,  were  the  only  proofs 
of  design  which  the  creation  afforded,  the  Atheist  would 
be  compelled  as  he  is  now,  to  abandon  reason  and  argu- 
ment, and  rest  his  cause  on  the  bad  passions  and  propen- 
sities of  the  human  heart. 

THE    CAUSE    OF    GRAVITATION. 

The  question  has  very  often  arisen,  what  is  the  nature 
of  the  connexion  between  one  particle  of  matter  and 
another  by  which  this  tendency  to  approach  is  produced  ? 
Jupiter  and  Saturn  go  out  of  their  respective  paths  to 
approach  each  other.  Why  do  they  do  it  1  How  is  the 
effect  produced  ?  When  the  stem  decays,  the  apple 
rapidly  goes  to  the  earth. — Is  there  any  intervening  sub- 
stance which  communicates  an  effect  from  one  to  the 
other?  Can  an  explanation  of  the  kind  like  the  first 
described  in  the  introductory  remarks,  be  given  of  this 

*  The  writer  has  a  torsion  halance,  constructed  to  be  used  as  an 
electrometer,  in  which  the  line  suspending  the  bar  of  shelleac,  is 
of  glass, — a  very  attennuatcd  thread,  spun  from  window  glass  by  a 
blow  pipe  and  a  lamp. 


84  GRAVITATION. 


phenomenon  1  No  explanation  ever  has  been,  probably 
none  can  be  given,  —  none  is  needed.  The  true  state 
of  the  case  is  in  all  probability  this :  —  The  Creator  has 
determined  that  any  two  portions  of  matter  placed  at 
any  distance  from  each  other,  shall  tend  to  approach ; 
and  by  his  own  direct  agency  he  carries  continually  this 
determination  into  effect.  This  is  all.  Not  only  nothing 
more  has  been  discovered,  but  probably  there  is  nothing 
more  to  discover.  In  regard  to  gravitation,  we  probably 
know  the  whole.  It  is  one  of  the  few  cases  when  the 
human  mind  has  finished  its  work.  It  has  reduced  the 
various  and  complicated  phenomena  to  one  single  and 
most  simple  principle,  and  the  operation  it  is  most  philo- 
sophical to  refer  to  the  Being  '  who  upholdeth  all  things 
by  the  word  of  his  power.'* 

LAWS    OP    GRAVITATION. 

It  remains  to  point  out  some  simple  particulars  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  principle  of  gravitation  operates, 
and  one  who  has  not  much  considered  the  ultimate  sim- 
plicity which  reigns  in  nature  will  be  surprised  at  their 
statement. 

The  gravitating  influence,  then,  which  any  portion  of 
matter  exerts,  may  be  considered  in  the  following  par- 
ticulars : 

1.  It  cannot  be  interrupted  or  changed. 

2.  It  is  the  same  upon  every  species  of  matter. 

3.  It  is  the  same  at  every  distance. 

It  may  seem  singular  to  present  seriously  and  formally 
such  propositions  as  these,  which  only  state  the  unchange- 
• 

*  We  use  the  word  probable,  frequently  in  these  remarks,  because 
it  would  be  rash  to  say  positively  that  no  intervening  link  can  be 
discovered  between  the  cause  and  the  effect  in  this  case.  But 
when  we  consider  that  if  such  a  link  could  be  discovered,  its  own 
connexions  must  be  sustained  by  the  agency  of  the  Supreme,  and 
when  we  consider  the  simplicity  and  uniformity  of  the  operation  of 
this  law,  we  may,  until  clear  evidence  to  the  contrary  is  presented, 
safely  consider  ourselves  as  having  in  this  instance  arrived  at  » 
Primordial  Law  of  JYature. 


GRAVITATION.  85 


ableness  of  this  principle  in  its  operation.  Some  very 
important  consequences  however  result  from  them,  and 
all  the  effects  produced  by  gravitation  depend  upon  them. 
They  consequently  deserve,  each,  a  separate  considera- 
tion. 

1,  It  cannot  be  interrupted  or  changed. 

A  stone  falls  towards  the  earth  as  rapidly  when  some 
substance  is  below  it,  intervening  between  it  and  the 
earth,  as  without  such  intervention.  In  other  words, 
nothing  can  cut  off  the  communication  between  one  body 
and  another,  so  as  to  interrupt  the  gravitating  force  which 
tends  to  bring  them  together.  If,  in  the  case  of  the  tor- 
sion balance,  a  plate  of  brass,  or  of  any  other  substance, 
is  brought  between  the  two  bodies  with  which  the  experi- 
ment is  tried,  it  will  not  in  the  least  degree  interfere  with 
their  action.  It  may  perhaps  at  first  view,  appear  that 
no  one  would  have  expected  such  an  interference.  We 
should  naturally  have  supposed,  it  may  be  said,  that  the 
interposition  of  a  foreign  substance  would  not  cut  off  the 
communication.  But  this  impression  results  from  long 
familiarity  with  the  fact.  Young  persons  are  always 
surprised  to  see  a  penknife  attracting  a  magnetic  needle 
through  the  glass  or  the  wood  of  the  case  ;  —  and  an  ex- 
cited electric  causing  the  leaves  of  the  electrometer  to 
diverge,  when  the  instrument  is  enclosed  in  an  air-tight 
glass  case,  is  often  exhibited  to  a  class  in  Philosophy  as  a 
wonderful  phenomenon.  No  reason  can  be  assigned, 
why  the  attraction  of  gravitation  should  act  through  an 
intervening  substance,  more  than  that  of  electricity  and 
magnetism,  or  why  the  mind,  which  is  surprised  at  it  in 
the  former  case,  should  consider  it  a  matter  of  course  in 
the  latter.* 

As  the  gravitating  power  of  matter  cannot  be  cut  off, 

*  The  attraction  of  magnetism  is  cut  off  by  the  interposition  of  au 
iron  plate.  A  curious  subject,  of  a  moment's  reverie,  may  be  fur- 
nished by  reflecting  on  the  complete  revolution  in  the  arts  and  the 
business  of  life,  which  would  be  produced  by  the  discovery  of  a  sub- 
stance, which  would  in  the  same  manner  interrupt  gravitation,  an4 
thus  enable  man  to  destroy  weight  at  his  pleasure. 
VOL.  I. NO.  IV.  8 


86  GRAVITATION. 


so  it  cannot  be  changed  or  taken  away.  Heat  a  mag- 
netic needle,  and  it  loses  its  power.  Touch  an  excited 
electric,  and  it  will  attract  no  longer.  But  a  bullet  or  a 
stone  can  by  no  human  skill  be  deprived  of  its  weight. 
The  Creator  has  made  this  principle  the  inseparable  and 
immutable  property  of  every  material  object  which  he  has 
formed. 

2.  It  is  the  same  witJi  every  species  of  matter. 

This  may  at  the  first  sight  appear  untrue.  For  it  will 
at  once  occur  to  the  reader,  that  since  gravitation  is  the 
cause  of  weight,  and  some  bodies  are  much  more  heavy 
than  others  of  the  same  magnitude,  there  must  be  a  dif- 
ference in  the  gravitating  power.  For  example,  since  a 
ball  of  lead  falls  much  more  rapidly  and  with  much 
greater  force  than  a  ball  of  cork,  it  might  be  inferred 
that  the  gravitation  of  the  former  is  much  greater  than 
that  of  the  latter. 

But  there  is  another  way  to  account  for  the  rapidity  and 
force  with  which  lead  descends;  i.e.  by  supposing  that  there 
is  more  lead  than  cork  in  balls  of  equal  size.  The  struc- 
ture of  the  cork  may  be  such  that  the  particles  are  not 
compact  together,  so  that  they  may  be  three  times  as 
many  particles  of  lead  in  the  same  space.  If  this  were 
true,  the  whole  mass  of  lead  would  fall  with  three  times 
the  force,  if  every  particle,  whether  of  lead  or  of  cork, 
were  attracted  alike.  Now  as  the  force  with  which  the 
ball  of  cork  would  fall,  must  be  less  than  that  of  the  lead, 
its  velocity  must  be  less  too,  for  it  has  the  same  quantity 
of  air  to  remove  from  its  path,  and  less  power  with  which 
to  remove  it.  It  would  therefore  be  more  retarded. 

If  now  the  atmosphere  is  removed,  and  the  two  bodies 
are  allowed  to  fall  through  empty  space,  they  will  fall 
together,  if  both  kinds  of  matter  are  attracted  equally. 
For  if  each  is  drawn  in  proportion  to  the  quantity  in 
each,  it  is  plain  that  they  will  be  equally  affected.  This 
experiment  has  often  been  tried  ; — it  is  called  the  guinea 
and  feather,  experiment,  because  a  guinea  and  a  feather 
have  been  often  used  as  the  light  and  heavy  bodies. 
A  tall  glass  vessel  is  fitted  to  the  air  pump,  with  the 


GRAVITATION. 


87 


guinea  and  feather  so  fixed  at  the  top,  that  they  can  be 
dropped  by  touching  a  wire.  They  go  exactly  together 
to  the  bottom;  —  which  shows  that  the  air  is  the  only 
cause  why  the  feather  usually  falls  more  slowly. 

It  will  be  very  evident  that  the  constitution  of  nature 
might  easily  have  been  such,  that  some  species  of  matter 
would  have  been  more  strongly  attracted  than  others.  It 
may  be  a  subject  of  interesting  reflection,  to  consider, 
what  would  have  been  the  effects  of  such  an  arrangement, 
and  by  what  phenomena  such  a  fact  would  be  made 
manifest. 

3.  It  is  the  same  at  every  distance. 

This  statement  will  excite  surprise  also  until  it  is  ex- 
plained.    Let  A  be 
any  body  of  matter,  ^-"""* 

and  cde,  and  fgh, 
represent  concentric 
spheres  around  it. 
Now,  what  we  mean 
to  say  is,  that  the 
force  of  attraction 
which  A  exerts,  at 
the  distance  cde, 
in  every  direction 
from  A,  that  is,  in 
the  whole  sphere,  will 
be  tho  same  which 
it  will  exert  in  the  whole  sphere  at  fgh.  In  other  words, 
the  whole  amount  offeree  exerted  in  every  direction,  by  a 
body,  at  any  distance,  is  the  same  with  the  whole  amount 
in  every  direction,  at  any  other  distance. 

It  will  be  evident  from  this  principle,  that,  since  the 
whole  amount  is  at  every  distance  the  same,  and  as  the 
sphere  of  influence  increases  the  farther  we  go  from  the 
body,  —  the  force  at  any  one  point  must  beless.  In  other 
words,  as  the  power  of  gravitation  extends  in  every 
direction,  the  farther  we  go  from  the  body,  it  is,  as  it 
were,  diffused  over  a  greater  space,  and  consequently  will 
be,  in  any  one  point,  weakened  by  this  diffusion.  For 


88  GRAVITATION. 


example,  let  A   be 
the  attracting  body, 
and  b  another  body 
which    it    attracts;       ^ 
now  from  what  was        °f== 
stated  before,  it  will 

readily  appear,  that  the  force  of  gravitation  exerted  by  a, 
between  the  points  c  and  d,  is  the  same  with  that  between 
b  and  e.  But  at  d,  the  body  is  under  the  influence  of 
only  half  this  force,  for  all  that  part  which  is  between  c 
and  e  does  not  act  upon  the  body,  whereas  at  be  it  feels 
the  whole.  It  would  appear  therefore  from  this  diagram, 
that  if  we  double  the  distance  of  any  attracted  body,  we 
diminish  the  amount  of  force  which  acts  upon  it  by  one 
half.  This  however  is  not  strictly  true,  for  the  preced. 
ing  diagram  represents  only  a  part  of  the  increase  of 
space,  in  receding  from  a 
point.  In  the  adjoining  fig- 
ure, where  c  represents  the 
centre,  and  oc,  od,  &,c,  lines 
diverging  from  it,  and  6  and 
a  corresponding  spaces  at  dif- 
ferent distances,  it  will  be  seen  that  b  is  more  than  twice 
as  large  as  a,  for  it  doubles  in  length,  and  also  in  breadth; 
it  is  consequently  four  times  as  large.  If  b  were  three 
times  as  far  from  o,  as  a  is,  it  would  accordingly  be  nine 
times  as  large.  Consequently  the  force  of  gravitation,  in 
order  to  be  equal  at  every  distance,  must  be  diffused,  as 
it  were,  in  proportion  to  the  square  of  the  distance ;  and 
as  the  power  over  any  particular  body  will  be  inversely 
as  the  diffusion  of  the  force  at  the  distance  of  the  body, 
it  follows  that  this  power  will  be  inversely  as  the  square 
of  the  distance.  This  result,  it  is  necessary  for  the  reader 
fully  to  understand,  and  to  fix  in  his  memory.  It  is 
considered  a  fundamental  law.  Expressed  in  general 
terms  it  is  as  follows  : 

The  force  of  gravitation  exerted  by  one  body  upon 
another,  is  inversely  as  the  square  of  the  distance  of  the 
bodies* 

*  This  is  usually  stated  at  once  as  the  fundamental  law  of  gravi- 
tation, and  iiot  deduced,  as  we  have  done,  from  the  simpler  state- 


GRAVITATION. 


This  will  be  easily  understood  and  remembered,  if  the 
reader  is  careful  to  notice  the  distinction  which  is  made 
between  the  whole  force  exerted  in  every  direction,  by  any 
central  mass,  which  whole  amount  is,  at  every  distance, 
the  same,  and  that  particular  part  of  this  force,  which 
operates  upon  an  attracted  body,  when  placed  at  differ- 
ent distances ;  this  particular  part  being  inversely  as  the 
square  of  the  distance. 

How  simple  and  beautiful  are  these  laws.  They  are 
not  exceptions  to  the  general  principle,  nor  even  modifi- 
cations. They  are,  on  the  contrary,  simple  assertions  of 
its  unvarying  uniformity.  From  these,  however  few,  and 
simple,  and  negative  in  character  as  they  are,  every  one 
of  the  complicated  and  powerful  effects  of  this  principle 
can  be  mathematically  deduced.  The  motions  of  the 
heavenly  bodies  in  their  orbits,  —  the  exact  curves  which 
they  describe,  —  every  deviation  from  their  regular 
paths  ;  —  the  tides,  both  aqueous  and  aerial,  with  all  their 
fluctuations;  —  the  path  of  every  cannon  ball;  —  the  ve- 
locity of  every  falling  stone,  and  the  rapidity  of  the  vi- 
brations of  every  pendulum, —  can  all  be  accurately  cal- 
culated and  ascertained,  from  this  simple  principle  of  an 
attractive  power,  exerted  by  every  particle,  which,  under 
all  circumstances,  and  at  every  distance,  remains  invari- 
ably the  same. 

EFFECTS    PRODUCED    BY    GRAVITATION. 

It  is  not  possible  to  consider  within  the  limits  of  the 
present  number,  the  various  and  complicated  effects  pro- 
duced by  gravitation.  Their  variety  and  complication 
arise  from  the  operation  of  this  principle  in  combination 
with  others.  Strictly  speaking,  gravitation  never  pro- 
duces but  one  effect,  and  that  is  a  tendency  of  one  body 
to  approach  another,  in  the  inverse  ratio  of  the  square  of 
the  distance.  This  simple  effect  is,  however,  modified 

ment,  that  gravitation  is  the  same  at  every  distance.  When  it  is  so 
stated,  the  young  scholar  is  often  surprised  that  Providence  should 
have  adopted  that  exact  mathematical  ratio  of  decrease.  This  sur- 
prise is  removed  by  considering  the  subject  in  the  light  in  which 
we  have  presented  it. 

VOL.    I. — NO.  IV.  8* 


GRAVITATION. 


by  the  presence,  and  contemporaneous  action  of  various 
other  principles. 

There  is  only  one  class  of  these  effects,  which  proper- 
ly comes  within  the  scope  of  our  present  design ;  and 
that  is  the  case  of  bodies  falling  freely.  This  subject  we 
shall  proceed  briefly  to  investigate.  The  result  to  which 
we  shall  come,  and  which  is  called  the  general  law  of 
falling  bodies  is  this  — 

The  spaces  passed  over  by  falling  bodies  are  as  the 
squares  of  the  times. 

That  is,  if  one  body  is  falling  one  minute,  and  another 
two  minutes,  the  spaces  which  they  will  respectively  de- 
scribe, will  be  as  the  squares  of  those  numbers,  so  that  the 
second  will  not  fall  simply  twice  as  far  as  the  first,  but 
four  times  as  far.  For  as  the  square  of  1  is  1,  and  of  2, 
4,  the  spaces  will  be  as  1  to  4.  In  the  same  manner,  if 
one  body  fall  2  seconds,  and  another  3,  the  number  of 
feet  of  the  respective  descents  will  be  as  4  to  9,  for  4  is 
the  square  of  2,  and  9  of  3. 

We  cannot  here  give  the  mathematical  demonstration 
of  this  principle,  but  to  illustrate  it  a  little,  let  the  reader 
imagine  a  mass  of  rock  loosed  from  the  edge  of  an  over- 
hanging cliff.  No  one  doubts  that  the  impetuosity  of  its 
descent  will  be  increased  by  the  distance  it  has  to  fall, 
but  every  one  has  not  a  distinct  idea  of  the  nature  and 
cause  of  this  acceleration.  In  order  to  understand  this, 
let  us  think  of  its  condition  after  it  has  fallen  through  the 
first  ten  feet  of  its  descent.  Suppose  that,  at  this  point, 
the  force  of  gravitation  should  suddenly  cease,  would  the 
rock  stop  in  its  descent  1  By  no  means ;  it  would  go  for- 
ward with  the  velocity  which  it  had  previously  acquired, 
precisely  as  the  cannon  ball  continues  to  move  swiftly 
through  the  air,  after  the  explosive  force  of  gunpowder 
ceases  to  operate  upon  it.  The  impulse  given  in  this 
latter  case  is  over  in  an  instant,  but  the  motion  continues 
until  the  resistance  of  the  air  extinguishes  it.  In  the 
same  manner,  if  the  force  of  gravity  were  to  cease  at  the 
end  of  the  first  ten  feet  of  the  fall  of  the  rock,  the  mass 
would  move  on,  with  the  velocity  which  it  had  already 
acquired,  to  the  earth,  excepting  that  it  might  lose  a  little 
by  the  resistance  of  the  air.  But  gravitation  does  not 


GRAVITATION.  91 


cease.  It  gives  new  impulses  every  moment,  which 
come  in  to  increase  the  last  acquired  velocity.  Now  it  is 
this  constant  and  regular  acceleration,  which  gives  to  the 
motion  of  falling  bodies  their  chief  peculiarity,  and  from 
this  it  results,  that  at  the  end  of  1,  2,  3  and  4  seconds, 
the  spaces  through  which  the  body  will  fall,  will  be  as  .1, 
4,  9  and  16,  which  are  the  squares  of  the  numbers  repre- 
senting the  time. 

It  has  been  found  by  experiment,  that  a  body  falling 
freely,  passes  through  16  feet  and  1  inch  in  one  second ; 
in  2  seconds  it  will  pass  through  4  times  that  distance ; 
in  3  seconds  9  times,  and  so  on.  From  this,  a  little 
arithmetical  ingenuity  will  easily  calculate  the  distance, 
through  which  a  heavy  body  will  fall,  in  any  number  of 
seconds.  The  height  of  a  precipice,  or  the  depth  of  a 
well  may  be,  by  the  assistance  of  a  stop  watch,  measured 
on  this  principle,  though  the  result  may  not  be  very  ac- 
curate. 

DISCOVERY     OF     THE     PRINCIPLE     OP     GRAVITATION  :      SIB 
ISAAC    NEWTON. 

The  subject  of  gravitation  suggests  to  the  mind  of 
every  reader,  the  name  of  the  great  English  Philosopher, 
Sir  Isaac  Newton.  We  cannot  more  appropriately  close 
this  treatise,  than  by  describing  some  of  the  leading  in- 
cidents in  his  life. 

He  was  born  about  three  hundred  years  ago,  in  Lin- 
colnshire, England,  at  a  place  called  Woolsthorpe.  He 
was  so  small,  and  feeble  in  his  early  infancy,  that  little 
hope  was  entertained  of  his  life.  This  has  been  the  case 
with  many  individuals,  who  afterwards  attained  to  high 
intellectual  eminence.  His  father  died  before  his  birth, 
but  his  mother  did  all  in  her  power  to  provide  for  him 
the  means  of  education.  At  one  of  his  schools,  he  dis- 
played a  very  singular  capacity  for  mechanical  contri- 
vances. '  By  means  of  little  saws,  hatchets,  hammers,  and 
all  sorts  of  tools,  he  made  models  of  wood,  when  his  com- 
panions were  at  play ;  and  such  was  his  dexterity,  that  he 
constructed  a  wooden  clock,  and  a  good  model  of  a 
windmill,  which  was  erected  about  that  time  in  his  neigh' 
borhood.  Into  this  model  he  sometimes  put  a  mouse, 


GRAVITATION. 


which  he  called  his  miller,  and  by  means  of  whose  action 
he  could  turn  the  mill  round  when  he  chose.  He  exe- 
cuted also  a  water  clock,  about  four  feet  high,  with  a 
dial  plate  at  the  top  for  indicating  the  hours.  The  index 
was  turned  by  a  piece  of  wood,  which  either  rose  or  fell 
by  the  dropping  of  water.  The  passion  for  these  me- 
chanical occupations,  often  withdrew  his  attention  from 
his  regular  studies  ;  and  in  consequence  of  this,  the  other 
boys  gained  places  above  him,  till  he  was  roused  to 
outstrip  them  all  by  a  little  extraordinary  exertion.  The 
intermission  of  his  mechanical  pursuits,  which  was  thus 
rendered  necessary,  rather  increased  than  abated  his 
ardor  for  them.  He  introduced  the  use  of  paper  kites 
among  his  school-fellows.  He  made  paper  lanterns,  by 
the  light  of  which  he  went  to  school  in  the  winter  morn- 
ings; and  he  frightened  the  country  people  by  tying 
them  to  the  tails  of  his  kites,  in  a  dark  night.  He 
watched  too  the  motions  of  the  sun  with  great  diligence ; 
and  by  means  of  pegs  placed  in  the  wall  of  the  house 
where  he  lived,  and  marks  for  the  hours  and  half  hours, 
the  time  of  the  day  was  shown  to  every  person,  on  what 
went  by  the  name  of  Isaac's  dial.  He  had  also  a  great 
turn  for  drawing;  and,  according  to  the  account  of  Mrs 
Vincent,  who  was  niece  to  the  wife  of  Sir  Isaac's  land- 
lord, at  Grentham,  he  frequently  made  little  tables  and 
cupboards  for  her  and  her  play-fellows.  She  mentions 
also  his  having  made  a  cart  with  four  wheels,  in  which 
he  could  drive  himself  by  turning  a  windlass.' 

Young  Newton  was,  before  a  long  time,  recalled  from 
school,  to  assist  his  mother  in  managing  the  farm.  But 
he  did  not  succeed  very  well  in  this  employment.  His 
taste  for  mechanical  employments  continued,  and  he  felt 
very  little  interest  in  the  labors  of  the  plough  and  the 
hoe.  Sometimes  he  went,  with  another  person  who  was 
employed  upon  the  farm,  to  a  neighboring  town  to  mar- 
ket, to  sell  their  produce.  In  such  cases  he  frequently 
left  his  charge,  and  spent  his  time  at  an  apothecary's, 
where  he  found  books  which  interested  him,  leaving  his 
business  in  the  hands  of  his  attendant.  He  was  not  al- 
ways faithful  to  his  duties  at  home.  '  The  study  of  a 
book,  the  execution  of  a  model,  or  the  superintendence 


GRAVITATION.  03 


of  a  water-wheel  of  his  own  construction,  often  occupied 
his  attention  when  the  sheep  were  astray,  and  the  corn 
was  treading  down  by  the  cattle.'  This  was  wrong.  No 
interest  in  science,  or  desire  for  intellectual  improve* 
ment,  can  excuse  neglect  of  duty,  and  especially  any  un- 
faithfulness to  a  trust  reposed  by  a  parent. 

Not  long  after  this,  Newton,  at  the  age  of  eighteen,  en- 
tered the  University  at  Cambridge.  Here  he  soon  became 
distinguished  for  his  interest  and  progress  in  mathematical 
science,  and  soon  after  receiving  his  degree,  he  turned 
his  attention  to  some  experiments  upon  light  and  colors^ 
which,  however,  we  must  not  stop  to  describe.  The 
plague  soon  after  broke  out  at  Cambridge,  and  to  avoid 
it,  he  retired  to  his  former  home.  Here  he  spent  two 
years,  and  during  this  period  of  retirement  and  seclusion, 
he  made  the  discoveries  in  regard  to  gravitation,  which 
have  immortalized  his  name.  One  day,  when  he  wa» 
seated  alone  in  a  garden,  the  fall  of  an  apple  arrest- 
ed his  attention.  Why  should  it  go  towards  the  earth? 
was  the  question.  A  common  mind  would  have  been 
satisfied  with  saying,  that  the  support  of  the  stem  was 
removed,  and  that  it  fell  of  course.  This,  however,  did 
not  satisfy  our  philosopher.  He  reflected  on  the  subject 
long.  It  was  not  that  the  fall  of  the  apple  appeared  new 
to  him.  It  was  only  the  occasion,  which  led  his  mind  to 
reflect  on  this  universal  tendency  towards  the  earth,  with 
which,  as  a  fact,  he  had  long  been  familiar.  He  consid- 
ered, that  this  tendency  towards  the  earth,  was  the  same 
in  all  parts  of  the  earth,  and  at  all  places.  It  was  not 
sensibly  increased  or  diminished,  in  deep  valleys  or  on 
lofty  mountains.  It  occurred  to  him  that  the  power 
might  perhaps  extend  far  from  the  earth,  into  the  regions 
of  the  air.  It  might  possibly  affect  the  moon,  and  if  so, 
—  if  it  should  prove  that  the  moon  was  constaatly  under 
the  influence  of  an  attraction  towards  the  earth,  —  the 
nature  of  her  motion  in  an  orbit  would  be  at  once  explain- 
ed, and  all,  the  cumbrous  perplexities  of  former  philoso- 
phers, to  account  for  the  celestial  revolutions  would  be 
ended  at  once.  '  I  will  make  the  calculation,'  thought 
he, '  and  ascertain  whether  the  motions  of  the  moon  cor- 
respond  with  such  a  supposition.' 


94  GRAVITATION. 


*  Now,  although  the  force  of  gravity  might  not  be  sen- 
sibly less,  at  the  tops  of  the  highest  mountains,  than  at 
the  ordinary  level  of  the  earth's  surface,  he  conceived  it 
to  be  very  possible,  that  at  so  great  a  distance  as  that  of 
the  moon,  it  might  be  considerably  different.  To  make 
an  estimate  of  what  might  be  the  degree  of  diminution, 
he  considered  that,  if  the  moon  be  retained  in  her  orbit 
by  the  force  of  gravity,  no  doubt  the  primary  planets  are 
carried  round  the  sun  by  a  like  power ;  and  by  compar- 
ing the  periods  of  the  several  planets  with  their  distances 
from  the  sun,  he  found  that  if  any  power  like  gravity  kept 
them  in  their  orbits,  its  strength  must  decrease  inj>ro- 
portion  as  the  squares  of  the  distances  increase.' 

Supposing  therefore,  that  the  force  of  gravity  decreas- 
ed, i.  c.  so  far  as  its  operation  upon  particular  bodies  is 
concerned,  in  the  above  named  ratio,  he  proceeded  with 
the  laborious  calculation.  The  result  disappointed  him. 
It  did  not  correspond  with  the  fact.  The  hopes  which 
he  had  cherished  of  throwing  new  light  on  this  subject 
were  blasted,  and  he  gave  up  the  consideration  of  it. 

The  reason  of  this  failure  was,  however,  an  error  gen- 
erally prevalent  at  that  time  in  regard  to  the  size  of  the 
earth.  He  supposed  it  smaller  than  it  really  was.  This 
affected  the  calculation  so  as  to  produce  the  wrong  result 
which  had  discouraged  him ;  and  it  was  not  until  several 
years  afterwards  that  he  discovered  this  cause  of  error. 
When  he  did  discover  it,  he  resumed  the  calculation.  As 
his  work,  on  this  second  attempt  drew  towards  the  close, 
he  foresaw  the  successful  result.  The  joy  of  attaining 
success  after  a  previous  failure,  —  the  magnificence  of 
the  expected  discovery — the  changes,  which  he  could 
easily  foresee  would  be  produced  in  the  opinions  of  man- 
kind on  this  subject, — the  rapid  advances  which  astron- 
omy might  now  be  expected  to  make,  all  burst  upon  his 
mind,  bringing  with  them  so  many  agitating  emotions, 
that  he  could  not  complete  his  work.  He  was  obliged 
to  call  in  the  assistance  of  a  friend  by  whom  the  result 
was  obtained. 

We  cannot  follow  this  great  philosopher  through  the 
remaining  incidents  of  his  life.  He  pursued  with  much 
diligence  and  success  his  mathematical  and  philosophical 


GRAVITATION.  95 


studies,  arid  became  sometimes  involved  in  controversies 
in  defence  of  his  opinions.  These  he  much  regretted, 
for  he  was  of  a  mild  and  peaceable  disposition.  His 
character  was  marked  with  almost  all  that  is  excellent. 
There  were  no  eccentricities  cherished,  —  no  singulari- 
ties in  manners  or  opinions  ;  —  he  was  kind  to  others, 
modest  and  unassuming  in  regard  to  himself ;  —  he  de- 
pended on  patient,  persevering  effort  for  his  success  in  all 
his  efforts,  and  by  his  constant  fidelity,  in  the  discharge 
of  the  duties  of  social  life  and  religion,  he  seemed  to  aim 
more  at  happiness,  than  at  fame. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  is  the  law  of  gravitation  1 

Is  the  truth  of  this  to  be  proved  by  theoretical  reason- 
ing, or  by  the  observation  of  facts  ? 

What  is  the  first  class  of  facts  named  1 

Has  it  always  been  known  that  the  revolutions  of  the 
planets  were  caused  by  the  attraction  of  the  central  body  ? 

Is  there  any  other  evidence  of  attraction  between  ce- 
lestial bodies,  besides  the  attraction  of  the  sun  for  the 
planets  1 

What  effect  is  produced  by  the  attraction  of  the  plan- 
ets for  each  other  1 

Are  these  disturbances  of  the  regular  motions  nume- 
rous ?  Are  they  great? 

What  is  the  second  case  in  which  the  operation  of 
gravitation  is  pointed  out? 

What  parts  of  the  earth  are  capable  of  a  separate  mo- 
tion towards  the  sun  and  moon  1 

What  is  the  third  class  of  facts  named  1 

How  is  the  attractive  force  of  a  mountain  made  evi- 
dent? 

Upon  what  mountain  was  the  experiment  first  tried  ? 
Was  the  effect  perceptible? 

Upon  what  other  mountain  has  the  experiment  been 
made! 

Were  the  effects  produced  very  great?  How  much 
did  the  plumb  line  deviate? 

Is  there  any  other  way  in  which  gravitation  has  been 
made  apparent? 


96  GRAVITATION. 


Can  you  name  any  of  the  general  laws  of  gravitation  ? 

What  is  the  general  character  of  these  laws  ? 

Can  the  force  of  gravitation  be  in  any  way  intercept- 
ed 1  Can  it  be  weakened  1 

Is  the  whole  amount  of  attractive  force  exerted  by  any 
body  the  same  on  different  distances  1 

Is  that  part  which  is  exerted  at  different  distances, 
upon  the  same  body,  the  same  1 

Can  any  reason  be  given  why  bodies  should  attract 
each  other  1 

Mention  some  of  the  leading  particulars  in  Newton'3 
Life? 


ADVERTISEMENT. 

CARTER,  HENDEE  &  BABCOCK, 

BOSTON, 

HAVE    LATELT    PUBLISHED 

AN   ELEMENTARY   TREATISE' ON 

GEOMETRY,   simplified   for  beginners  not   versed   in   Algebra. 
Part  1,  containing  PLANE  GEOMETRY,  with  its  application  to  the 
Solution  of  Problems.     By  Francis  J.  Grund.     Second  Edition. 
Extracts  from  the  Preface. 

«  Popular  Education  and  the  increased  study  of  Mathematics,  as 
the  proper  foundation  of  all  useful  knowledge,  seem  to  call  espe- 
cially for  elementary  treatises  on  Geometry,  as  has  been  evinced  in 
the  favorable  reception  of  the  first  edition  of  this  work  wirhin  a  few 
months  of  the  date  of  its  publication.  A  few  changes  have  been 
made  in  the  present  edition,  which,  it  is  hoped,  will  contribute  to 
the  usefulness  of  the  work  as  a  book  of  elementary  instruction. 

'As  regards  the  use  of  it  in  schools  and  seminaries,  the  teacher 
will  find  sufficient  directions  in  the  remarks  inserted  in  the  body  of 
the  work. 

At  a  late  meeting  of  the  School  Committee  of  the  city  of  Boston, 
Mr  Grund's  Geometry  was  recommended  as  a  suitable  book  to  be 
used  in  the  Public  Schools.  Similar  testimonials  of  the  merits  and 
usefulness  of  the  work  have  been  received  from  Teachers  and 
School  Committees,  in  various  parts  of  New  England. 

C.  H.  &  B.  have  in  press  and  will  publish  in  a  few  weeks,  '  A 
Treatise  on  Solid  Geometry,  by  Francis  J.  Grund  :  intended  as  a  Se- 
quel to  the  '  First  Lessons  in  Plane  Geometry.'  Apparatus  has 
been  prepared  by  Mr  Josiah  Holbrook,  calculated  to  illustrate  the 
Problems  contained  in  the  abore  work. 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER   V. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 
THE    EYE. 

BY  JEROME  V.  C.  SMITH,  M.  D. 

A  VARIETY  of  professional  works  are  already  before  the 
public  on  the  anatomy  of  the  eye,  but  it  is  questionable 
whether  any  of  them  are  sufficiently  divested  of  technical 
language,  to  be  of  utility  to  that  class  of  readers  who  are 
only  interested  in  the  beauties  of  science. 

Without  making  pretensions  to  originality,  the  writer 
of  the  following  pages  will  endeavor  to  simplify  a  subject, 
too  generally  considered  abstruse,  that  it  may  be  under- 
stood by  those  who  have  neither  patience,  time,  nor  in- 
clination to  pursue  it  under  the  guidance  of  a  public 
instructer. 

Well  acquainted,  as  anatomists  are,  with  the  minute 
organization  of  the  eye,  no  one  has  been  able  to  explain 
how  or  why  we  see.  Although  the  visual  organs  are 
constructed  with  such  exact  reference'to  the  laws  of  light, 
that  telescopes  and  microscopes,  made  upon  truly  philo- 
sophical principles,  are  but  imitations  or  modifications  of 
the  apparatus  of  the  human  eye,  —  there  is  still  a  differ- 
ence between  the  animate  and  inanimate,  the  most 
wonderful  and  astonishing.  The  first  is  a.  perceiving  in- 
strument ;  the  second,  a  receiving. 

The  eye  can  only  perform  its  destined  functions,  in 
connexion  with  a  living  system,  regulated  bj  an  existing 
harmony  of  all  its  complex  machinety,  consisting  of 
nerves,  blood  vessels  and  brain,  However  perfect  in  its 
several  tunics  the  eye  may  be,  or* transparent  in  its  fluids, 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  v.  9 


93  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

if  the  sensorium  become  disordered  by  disease,  it  no 
longer  recognises  the  images  or  impressions  transmitted 
to  it  through  the  visual  nerve.  Thus  it  will  be  under- 
stood, that  the  eye  may  labor,  receive,  and  transmit  a 
miniature  picture  of  all  it  perceives  to  the  soul ;  but,  if  there 
is  a  derangement  of  that  mass  of  mysteriously  constructed 
matter,  filling  the  whole  skull,  which  all  experience  de- 
monstrates to  be  the  seat  of  thought,  no  idea  is  excited. 
On  the  other  hand,  when  individuals  suddenly  lose  their 
sight,  without  materially  injuring  the  optic  nerve,  they 
sometimes  dream  of  seeing.  In  this  case,  imagination 
excites  the  nerve  in  such  a  peculiar  and  inexplicable 
manner,  as  to  call  up  the  idea  of  vision.  This  nerve 
being  formed  with  exclusive  reference  to  that  function,  in 
the  economy  of  animal  life,  any  impression  upon  it  will 
excite  a  corresponding  impression  in  the  brain,  and  no 
other. 

All  creatures,  from  man  downward,  living  on  land, 
have  their  eyes  very  similar  in  structure.  The  same 
quantity  of  light  that  enables  a  man  to  see  distinctly,  will 
also  answer  for  a  horse,  an  ox,  and,  indeed,  most  of  the 
domestic  and  graminivorous  animals.  A  natural  inference 
would  be,  then,  were  it  not  otherwise  known  by  dissection, 
that  all  the  parts  entering  into  the  composition  of  their 
eyes,  in  order  to  produce  the  same  effect  as  in  man,  were 
of  the  same  materials. 

In  carnivorous  animals,  the  original  principle  of  vision 
is  preserved,  but  most  curiously  modified,  according  to 
their  habits  and  characters.  Those  that  feed  on  herbage, 
are  commonly  of  social  dispositions,  feeding  in  companies 
through  the  day,  and  quietly  ruminating  or  sleeping 
through  the  night. 

Those,  on  the  contrary,  that  live  by  violence,  preying 
on'those  they  have  slain,  are  generally  solitary:  they  lie 
in  ambush,  alone,  watching  for  their  victim ;  and  it  is  so 
ordered,  by  the  immutable  laws  of  nature,  that  they  slay 
such  as  are  more  timid  and  helpless  than  themselves.  In 
order  to  accomplish  this,  with  the  greatest  certainty, 
carnivorous  animals  have  the  power  of  seeing  in  the 
dark. 

Fishes,  by  a  further  modification  of  the  original  appa- 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  99 

ratus,  common  to  all  others,  probably  see  with  peculiar 
distinctness,  in  the  darkest  night,  at  unfathomable  depths 
of  the  ocean. 

With  another  alteration,  not  unlike  changing  the 
distances  between  the  lenses  of  a  spy-glass,  another  fami- 
ly of  animals,  as  seals,  &,c,  see  alternately  in  two  elements. 
Still  further,  ou  the  descending  scale  of  creation,  insects 
are  provided  with  motionless  eyes,  —  giving  them  the  fa- 
culty of  seeing  in  every  possible  direction.  And,  lastly, 
in  snails  and  some  kinds  of  worms,  the  eyes  are  fixed  at 
the  extremity  of  a  moveable  feeler,  adapting  them  to  dif- 
ferent focal  distances,  —  or  they  can  be  drawn  entirely 
within  the  head,  for  safe  keeping,  when  not  in  use,  pre- 
cisely on  the  same  principle  of  care  that  we  draw  out  the 
slides  of  an  opera  glass,  and  close  them  up  again,  when 
no  longer  needed. 

Were  we  desirous  of  describing  the  nice  variations  in 
the  mechanism  of  the  eyes  of  the  several  species  of  ani- 
mals adverted  to  in  this  preliminary,  however  interesting 
it  might  be  to  some,  would,  perhaps,  appear  tedious  to 
others.  Confining  ourselves,  now,  to  the  exclusive  con- 
sideration of  the  human  eye,  we  shall  proceed  with  an 
orderly  description  of  its  several  parts,  —  hoping  that  the 
few  scientific  terms  which  must  necessarily  be  retained, 
will  not  prove  to  be  a  serious  embarrassment. 

THE    SOCKET    IN    WHICH    THE    EYE    ROLLS. 

Several  thin  pieces  of  bone  assist  in  the  formation  of  the 
orbit,  which,  in  a  dry  skull,  is  shaped  much  like  a  pear, 
with  its  large  end  turned  outward.  The  upper  plate  of 
bone  is  arched,  slightly  resembling  an  arch  of  a  bridge, 
having  the  brain  resting  on  it  above,  and  the  eye  ball 
moving  under  it  below.  Externally,  the  eyes  are  at  con- 
siderable distance,  but  the  inner  termination  of  the  coni- 
cal orbits,  answering  to  the  small  end  of  the  fruit,  are 
quite  near  together.  At  their  points,  is  a  ragged  hole, 
in  each,  through  which  the  nerve  of  vision  enters  the 
brain.  A  large  quantity  of  fat  is  deposited  in  this  socket, 
between  the  bones  and  eye-ball,  that  the  latter  may  always 
move  with  perfect  freedom,  and  without  friction,  in  all 
directions.  After  a  long  sickness,  this  cushion  of  fat  is 


100  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

absorbed,  with  that  deposited  in  the  bones,  to  sustain  the 
system,  which  accounts  for  the  sinking  in  of  the  eye :  aa 
the  person  recovers,  the  stomach  resumes  the  task  of 
taking  care  of  the  body,  the  fat  is  deposited  again,  and 
the  eye  becomes  prominent  as  before. 

GLOBE    OF    THE    EYE. 

When  detached  from  the  surrounding  parts,  the  eye- 
ball does  not  appear  exactly  round  :  it  is,  in  outline,  more 
than  two  thirds  of  a  large  sphere,  with  a  portion  of  a 
lesser  glebe  laid  upon  it. 

The  use  of  this  arrangement  is  obvious.  If  the  ball 
had  been  actually  round,  the  compass  of  vision  would 
have  been  very  limited  :  as  it  is,  the  smaller  portion,  by 
its  short  curve,  protrudes  so  far  beyond  the  socket,  where 
the  globe  is  lodged  for  safely,  that  the  sphere  of  vision  is 
very  much  enlarged. 

MUSCLES    OF    THE    EYE. 

To  move  the  ball,  cords,  called  muscles,  were  neces- 
sary ;  otherwise,  animals  would  have  been  obliged  to  turn 
their  bodies  as  often  as  an  object  was  to  be  seen.  Of 
these,  four  are  straight,  going  from  the  sides  of  the  ball, 
to  be  fastened  jiear  the  hole,  at  the  termination  of  the 
bony  cavity :  their  office  is  to  hold  the  eye  firmly,  in  a 
fixed  position,  as  in  steadily  contemplating  a  painting. 
Two  others  are  given,  making  six  in  the  whole,  to  ex- 
press, principally,  the  passions  of  the  mind :  they  are 
denominated  the  oblique,  in  consequence  of  their  oblique 
movement  of  the  eye.  One  rolls  it  downward  and  out- 
ward, as  in  viewing  the  shoulder ;  the  other,  going  through 
a  loop,  which  is  so  purely  mechanical,  that  it  has  been 
the  theme  of  admiration  with  philosophers  in  all  ages, 
carries  it  upward  and  inward.  The  last  action  can  be 
shown  by  looking  at  a  button,  held  on  a  line  with  the 
nose,  midway  of  the  forehead.  Although  these  oblique 
muscles  exist  in  monkeys  and  nearly  all  tribes  of  quadru- 
peds, they  are  imperfectly  developed ;  showing  most 
conclusively  that  they  were  designed  for  expressing  the 
feelings  and  passions  of  man  —  an  ineffable  language, 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  101 

which  all  the  brute  creation  have  the  sagacity  to  under- 
stand. When  one  of  the  four  straight  muscles  is  shorter 
than  its  fellow  on  the  opposite  side,  it  produces  the  cross- 
eye,  or  squinting. 

FIG.  1. 


Explanation  of  Figure  1. 

This  plan,  from  a  careful  dissection  of  the  right  eye,  exhibits  the 
muscles,  viewed  obliquely  from  its  upper  and  outer  side. 
a  — The  eye-ball. 
5  —  Part  of  the  upper  eye-lid, 
c —  Tunica  Conjunctiva,  or  inclination  of  the  common  skin  of  the 

forehead,  which  turns  over  the  edges  of  the  lids,  anil  is  finally 

carried  over  the  front  of  the  globe,  but  is  perfectly  transparent 

at  this  point. 

d  —  The  integuments  of  the  right  side  of  the  nose. 
ee  —  The  optic  nerve. 
/ — The  four  straight  muscles,  with  the  levator,  or  raising  muscle 

of  the  upper  eye-lid,  together  with  the  superior  oblique  muscle, 

embracing  the  optic  nerve  where  it  enters  the  orbit. 
g  —  The  levator  of  the  lid  drawn  aside. 

VOL.   i.  —  NO.   v.  9* 


102  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

h  —  Levator  occuli,  or  superior  straight  muscle,  —  to  roll  the  ball 

upward. 

i ibductor  occuli,  rolls  the  ball  outward. 

k  —  Adductor  occuli,  rolls  it  towards  the  nose. 

/ — Depressor  occuli,  rolls  the  ball  downward,  towards  the  cheek. 

m  —  The  superior  oblique  muscle,  passing  through  a  loop  at  n. 

n  —  Called  the  trochlea,  or  pully,  but,  in  fact,  a  simple  loop. 

o  —  Insertion  of  the  superior  oblique  muscle  in  the  eye-ball. 

p  —  The  inferior  oblique  muscle,  taking  its  rise  from  a  bone. 

q  —  The  insertion  of  the  tendon  of  the  inferior  oblique  muscle  in  the 

first  coat  of  the  ball. 


COATS    OP    THE    EYE. 

Such  is  the  mechanical  arrangement  of  the  different 
coats  or  coverings  of  the  eye,  answering  in  use,  to  the 
brass  tubes  of  a  spy-glass,  that  one  is  fitted  within  the 
other,  like  a  nest  of  boxes :  they  are  three  in  number. 
Anatomists,  however,  make  minute  subdivisions  of  these, 
of  no  practical  benefit  to  themselves  or  others. 

Explanation  of  Figure  2.  FlG-  2- 

This  is  a  plan  of  the  coats,  or 
as  they  are  termed  in  anatomical 
works,  tunics. 

Reference  should  be  made  to 
this  after  reading  the  text.  The 
natural  figure  of  the  eye,  in  out- 
line, is  preserved. 

a  — The  Sclerotic,  or  first  hard 
tunic. 

b  —  The  Choroid,  or  fleecy  tunic. 

c— The  Retina,  or  third  and  in- 
most tunic,  which  is  an  expan- 
sion of  the  optic  nerve  g —  the  certain  seat  of  vision. 

d  —  The  Cornea,  or  prominent,  transparent  circle,  over  which  the 
lids  close,  in  winking,  — hereafter  to  be  described. 

e  — The  Crystalline  lens,  or  little    magnifying  glass  of  the  eye, 
about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  diameter. 

/—Is   the   space   filled   by  one   of   the   fluids   of  the   eye,   and 
called  the  anterior  chamber. 

g  — The  stump  of  the  optic  nerve,  which  is  prolonged  into  the  sub- 
stance of  the  brain. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  103 

1st.  The  first  is  the  Sclerotic*  coat,  thick,  firm  and 
possessing  but  little  sensibility.  Its  hardness  gives  secu- 
rity to  the  delicate  membranes  beyond ;  affords  attach- 
ment for  the  muscles ;  and  by  its  elasticity,  equally  distends 
the  ball,  that  none  of  the  humors  may  suffer  from  pres- 
sure. Happily  the  hard  coat  is  very  rarely  diseased. 
Fishes  have  a  sclerotic  coat  strictly  hard,  being  either 
cartilaginous  or  firm  bone,  graduated  in  this  respect  ac- 
cording to  the  depth  to  which  they  descend  in  search 
of  food.  Without  this  compensation,  the  great  weight  of 
the  water  above  would  crush  in  their  eyes  instantaneously. 
Through  this  coat,  in  what  is  called  the  white  of  the  eye, 
the  occulist  plunges  a  needle  to  cure  some  kinds  of  blind- 
ness. 

2d.  Ckoroidi-  is  the  name  of  the  second  coat,  having 
a  dark  red  color,  and  apparently  slightly  connected  with 
the  first.  By  carefully  cutting  off  the  sclerotic  from  a 
bullock's  eye,  with  scissors,  the  choroid  will  be  beautifully 
exhibited,  sustaining  the  humors.  Minute  dissection, 
under  a  microscope,  shows  this  tunic  is  a  complete  web 
of  arteries  and  veins  ;  —  hence  its  reddish  hue.  Between 
this  and  the  sclerotic,  fine  silvery  threads  are  seen,  which 
hold  a  control  over  the  iris,  yet  to  be  described,  —  deter- 
mining by  their  influence  how  much  or  how  little  light 
may  safely  be  admitted  into  the  eye.  Fungous  tumors 
have  their  origin  in  this  coat,  growing  so  rapidly  as  to 
burst  the  sclerotica,  pushing  their  way  out  of  their  orbit 
down  upon  the  cheek,  incorporating  the  whole  ball  in  one 
prodigious  mass  of  disease.  The  inside  of  this  membrane 
resembles  closely  woven  wailed  cloth,  having  a  fleecy 
nap,  similar  to  velvet,  called  tapetum.^.  This  tapetum  is 
particularly  interesting  in  a  philosophical  point  of  view, 
as  on  its  shade  of  color,  in  a  great  measure,  as  will  be 
more  fully  explained  in  the  sequel,  depends  the  power  of 
seeing  in  the  dark. 

3d.  Retina,^  so  called  from  its  resemblance  to  a  net, 
completes  the  number,  being  the  innermost  and  last.  Its 

*  Sclerotic,  from  a  Greek  word  meaning  hard. 
t  Choroides,  —  like  a  lamb-skin,  fleecy. 
t  Tapetum  —  resembling  cloth,  called  tapestry. 
§  Retina  —  a  net. 


104  ANIMAL    MECHANISM.         • 

color  is  that  of  gum  arable,  or  ground  glass  :  nothing  can 
be  more  delicate,  being  too  tender  to  bear  its  own  weight. 
In  fact,  it  is  the  expansion  of  the  optic  nerve,  the  imme- 
diate seat  of  vision.  To  see  it  well,  an  eye  should  be 
taken  to  pieces  in  a  tumbler  of  water. 

Explanation  of  Figure  3,  FIG.  3. 

from  dissection  of  a  human  eye, 

the  organ  being  represented  of  the 

proper  size. 

a  —  The  optic  nerve. 

bb  —  The  Sclerotic  coat  cut  and 

turned  outward, 
c  —  A  circular  portion  of  the  Scle- 

rotica,  being  a  rim  of  the  white 

of  the  eye,  cut,  and  turned  up- 
ward, having  in  its  embrace  the 

cornea. 

d —  The  cornea, 
ee  —  One  half  the  iris,  in  its  place, 

the  other  half  being  removed. 
/—The  Pupil,  soon  to  be  described,  with  the  crystalline  lens  in  its 

place. 
g  —  The  Ciliary  circle,  or  second  vertical  partition,  within  the  eye, 

behind  the  iris. 
h  h —  Choroid  coat, 
i  —  The  Ciliary  processes,  or  ruffle  like  plaits  of  the  ciliary  circle,  yet 

to  be  explained.     A  small  portion  of  the  iris  is  cut  away  to  show 

them 

A- —  A  portion  of  the  ins  cut  and  turned  back. 
I  —  The  floating  points  of  the  ciliary  processes,  also  turned  back. 
m  —  The  middle  smooth  part  of  the  retina,  seen  by  cutting  a  hole 

through  the  choroid  coat. 
n  —  The  roots  of  the  ciliary  processes,  to  which  the  black  paint, 

secreted  by  the  tapetum  or  inner  surface  of  the  choroides,  adheres. 
o  —  The  ciliary  processes  inserted  into  the  capsule,  or  sack  which 

contains  the  crystalline  lens. 

THE    CORNEA. 

Anteriorly,  that  clear,  shining  wall,  resembling  a  watch 
crystal,  which  finishes  the  membranous  box,  is  called 
the  cornea.  Simple  as  this  thin  crystal  appears,  it  is 
infinitely  curious  in  structure.  It  is  made  of  thin,  pelliv- 
cid  plates,  one  over  another,  held  together  by  a  spongy 
elastic  substance.  By  maceration  in  water,  a  few  hours, 
the  sponge  will  absorb  it,  to  such  a  degree,  that  the  plate? 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  105 

may  be  distinctly  felt  to  slide  upon  each  other,  between 
the  thumb  and  finger. 

Little  glands,  like  bags  of  oil,  only  to  be  seen  by  the 
most  powerful  microscope,  are  lodged  under  the  first 
plate,  which  are  continually  oozing  out  their  contents 
upon  the  surface,  which  gives  the  sparkling  brilliancy  t^ 
this  part  of  the  eye.  As  death  approaches,  this  flu- 
forms  a  pellicle,  like  a  dark  cloud,  over  the  lower  portion 
of  the  cornea.  This  formation  is  taken  to  be  a  sure  indi- 
cation of  approaching  dissolution.  Many  diseases  are 
peculiar  to  the  cornea ;  such,  for  example,  as  a  milky 
colored  effusion  of  matter  under  the  external  plate,  pre- 
venting a  free  transmission  of  light  to  the  interior.  See 
fig.  2,  letter  d,  and  fig.  3,  letters  c  and  d,  for  representa- 
tions of  the  cornea. 


By  looking  into  a  person's  eye,  there  seems  to  be  a 
vertical  partition,  either  black,  blue,  or  hazle,  as  the  case 
may  be,  which  prevents  us  from  looking  into  the  concealed 
regions  beyond,  —  having  a  round  hole  in  its  centre. 
Scientifically,  this  partition  is  called  the  iris,  while  its 
central  orifice  is  denominated  the  pupil  How  the  diam- 
eter of  this  hole  is  enlarged  or  diminished,  anatomists 
have  never  been  fortunate  enough  to  explain,  satisfac- 
torily, the  apparatus  is  so  minute,  that  they  cannot  decide 
upon  its  true  character.  One  fact,  however,  is  certain, 
that  the  pupil  is  large  or  small,  according  to  the  quantity 
of  light  that  may  be  necessary  to  the  formation  of  a  dis- 
tinct picture  of  the  object  seen,  —  and  this  change  is 
effected  without  our  being  conscious  of  the  action. 
Resembling  other  delicate  membranes,  in  many  respects, 
we  are  unwilling  to  confuse  the  subject  with  a  descrip- 
tion that  would  distract  the  mind  of  a  new  beginner. 

From  the  reflection  of  such  rays  as  are  not  admitted 
through  the  pupil,  or  central  hole,  we  account  for  much 
of  the  lively  brilliancy  of  the  iris.  On  its  back  side  it  is 
rather  fleecy,  like  the  tapetum,  but  dissimilar  in  other 
respects.  Over  this  is  spread  a  black,  blue,  hazle,  or  tea- 
colored  paint,  which  gives  a  permanent  color  to  the  eye 
It  has  been  often  remarked,  that  the  eyes  and  hair  ordi- 


106  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

narily  correspond  ,in  color.  Whenever  the  iris  acts,  as 
for  instance,  il  does,  in  going  from  a  dark,  into  a  light 
room,  the  pupil  is  made  smaller,  —  acting  uniformly  in  its 
fibres,  to  keep  it  circular.  On  returning  to  the  dark 
apartment,  the  pupil  enlarges  again.  A  knowledge  of 
this  fact,  will  explain  the  reason  of  a  painful  sensation  in 
\^'ie  eye,  caused  by  a  strong  and  sudden  light.  As  soon 
as  the  iris  has  had  time  to  diminish  the  size  of  its  pupil, 
we  can  endure  the  same  luminous  object  with  perfect 
comfort.  When  we  leave  a  well  lighted  room,  on  first 
going  into  a  dark  street,  everything  appears  lurid  and 
indistinct.  The  iris  soon  begins  to  enlarge  the  pupil,  to 
admit  more  light,  and  when  that  has  been  accomplished, 
although  in  comparative  darkness,  we  recognise  objects 
without  an  effort.  Acting  independently  of  the  will,  its 
duties  are  like  those  of  a  faithful  sentinel,  always  con- 
sulting the  safety  of  the  splendid  optical  instrument  con- 
fided to  its  care,  with  reference  to  its  subserviency  to  the 
being  for  whose  use  it  was  exclusively  constructed.  Were 
it  otherwise,  —  were  it  left  to  our  own  care,  how  often  it 
would  be  neglected,  and  indeed,  totally  ruined,  solely  for 
the  want  of  undivided  attention.  All  that  complex  system 
of  machinery,  on  which  life  and  existence  are  constantly 
depending,  (the  vital  organs,)  are  wisely  placed  beyond 
the  reach  of  the  laws  of  volition.  If  the  pulsation  of  the 
heart,  the  function  of  the  lungs,  or  the  circulation  of 
blood  in  the  brain,  depended  upon  our  attention,  —  our 
recollection  of  the  fact,  that  they  must  be  kept  in  motion, 
or  we  could  not  live,  we  should  be  in  great  danger  of 
forgetting  it,  and  therefore  die  in  our  first  slumber  ! 

Parrots  have  a  voluntary  control  over  the  pupil,  opening 
and  closing  it  at  pleasure.  How  this  is  done,  or  why,  in 
the  constitution  of  that  bird,  it  is  neces'sary,  we  cannot 
determine.  Cats,  also,  appear  to  have  a  similar  power  of 
moderating  or  graduating  the  quantity  of  light,  admitted 
into  their  eyes,  as  it  suits  their  own  convenience. 

In  carnivorous  quadrupeds,  the  pupil  is  commonly  oval, 
and  oblique,  permitting  them  to  look  from  the  bottom  to 
the  top  of  a  tree,  without  much  elevation  of  their  heads. 
Graminivorous  quadrupeds  have  an  oblong  pupil,  placed 
horizontally,  with  respect  to  the  natural  position  of  the 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  107 

body.  This  form  gives  them  the  faculty  of  surveying  the 
expanse  of  a  field,  at  once.  Farmers  are  familiar  with 
the  circumstance  that  the  ox,  without  being  obliged  to 
undergo  the  fatigue  of  circuitous  inarches,  walks  directly 
to  the  best  feed  in  the  whole  lot,  provided  the  enclosure 
be  a  plain.  See  fig.  3,  letters  ee,  and  k.  Fig.  4,  let- 
ters c  c. 

CILIARY    PROCESSES. 

Ciliary  Processes.  Directly  behind  the  iris,  is  a  second 
curtain,  having  a  central  hole  through  it,  corresponding 
with  that  through  the  first  curtain,  but  nearly  as  large  as 
the  whole  diameter  of  the  lens.  All  the  luminous  rays 
which  are  converged  by  the  convexity  of  the  cornea,  which 
is,  in  effect,  a  plane  convex  lense,  cannot  enter  through 
the  pupil ;  many  of  them  strike  the  plane  of  the  iris,  and 
are  reflected  back,  as  on  a  looking-glass,  without  pene- 
trating its  substance.  If  an)  rays  were  to  get  through, 
by  such  an  irregular  process,  it  would  produce  great  con- 
fusion, by  destroying  the  outline  and  vividness  of  the 
image  previously  made  on  the  visual  nerve,  through  the 
natural  opening.  To  prevent  such  mishaps,  the  paint  on 
the  back  of  the  iris  is  to  absorb  such  rays  as  are  not 
reflected,  and  have  a  tendency  therefore  to  pass  onward. 
Nature,  as  though  fearful  that  circumstances  might  so 
alter  the  condition  of  the  pigment,*  as  that  some  light, 
notwithstanding  this  precaution,  might  penetrate,  has 
interposed  this  second  veil, —  solely  it  is  supposed  to  stop 
all  wandering  rays.  This  ciliary  curtain  presents  three 
thicknesses,  and  lastly  has  a  thick  coat  of  black  paint  on 
its  back.  In  order  to  give  it  treble  security,  as  it  regards 
thickness,  it  is  plaited  like  the  folds  of  a  ruffle.  There 
are  seventy  folds  in  the  human  eye,  of  equal  width,  nicely 
laid,  one  over  the  other.  A  part  so  highly  important, 
cannot  be  overlooked  in  studying  the  philosophy  of  vision. 

*  Pigment — paint. 


108  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


FIG.  4. 


Explanation  of  Figure  4. 
This  plan  presents  a  longitudinal  section  of  the  left  eye  and  bony 

orbit. 

a  —  The  upper  eye-lid,  shut 

b  —  The  cornea. 

cc  —  The  cut  edges  of  the  iris. 

d  —  The  pupil  or  round  hole  through  the  centre  of  the  iris,  which,  in 
the  living  eye,  resembles  a  black,  highly  polished  dot. 

te  —  The  cut  edges  of  the  sclerotic  and  choroid  tunics,  with  the 
retina,  before  exhibited  in  the  preceding  drawings. 

f —  The  crystalline  Zens,  as  it  is  lodged,  with  reference  to  other  parts.  - 

gg  —  The  Ciliary  processes  continued  from  the  choroid  coat.  The 
plaits  are  here  distinctly  seen.  In  other  designs  accompanying 
this  article,  they  will  be  noticed  in  a  front  view. 

h — The  optic  nerve  running  from  the  brain,  through  the  bones,  to 
the  globe  of  the  eye,  apparently  closely  embraced  by  the  recti, 
or  straight  muscles. 

» —  The  levator,  or  muscle  that  raises  the  upper  eye-lid. 

k  —  The  upper  straight  muscle  of  the  eye,  called  levator  occult. 

I  —  Inferior  straight  muscles,  its  antagonist,  on  the  under  side  of  the 
ball,  called  depressor  occuli. 

m  —  A  section  of  the  infeiior  oblique  muscle,  called  obliquus  infe- 
rior, used  in  rolling  the  eye  upward  and  inward,  as  in  looking  ai 
a  button  laid  above  the  root  of  the  nose.  The  superior  oblique, 
passing  through  a  loop,  carries  the  eye  downward  and  outward,  as 
in  looking  at  the  top  of  the  shoulder.  These  two  muscles, 
by  old  writers,  were  termed  rotatores  and  amatores,  in  allusion  to 
their  office  of  rolling  the  ball  and  expressing  passions. 

nn  —  A  section  of  the  blood  vessels  and  nerves,  with  a  large  quan- 
tity of  fat,  surrounding  the  optic  nerve.  This  fat  lies  between  the 
muscles  and  betwixt  the  socket  and  globe. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  109 


HUMORS  OF  THE   EYE. 

By  humors,  medical  writers  mean  the  fluids  which  dis- 
tend the  eye-ball.  They  are  three  in  number,  —  pos- 
sessing different  densities,  and  varying  much  in  quality, 
quantity  and  use.  Beside  fulfilling  the  first  intention,  — 
viz.,  distension,  they  are  so  purely  transparent,  as  to  offer 
no  obstruction  to  the  free  passage  of  light.  Too  much 
care  cannot  be  bestowed  on  the  anatomy  of  these  fluids 
by  surgeons,  as  they  are  the  seats  of  many  remarkable 
diseases.  Those  only  interested  in  this  description,  as 
general  philosophers,  by  close  examination,  will  have  a 
perfect  idea  of  them,  and  will  consequently  understand 
the  real  nature  of  some  of  the  many"  causes  that  weaken 
the  power  of  vision,  or  ultimately  produce  a  total  blind- 
ness. The  gratification  afforded  by  the  examination  of  a 
bullock's  eye,  —  tracing  the  several  parts  by  this  paper, 
will  be  an  ample  compensation  for  the  labor,  because  it 
will  forever  fix  on  the  mind  interesting  discoveries,  and 
lead  the  reader,  insensibly,  to  a  course  of  reflections, 
productive  of  much  intellectual  enjoyment. 

AQUEOUS    HUMOR.* 

The  aqueous  humor  is  the  first  in  the  order  of  demon- 
stration, lying  directly  back  of  the  cornea,  —  so  clear, 
that  one  unacquainted  with  the  existence  of  it,  would  not 
suspect  a  fluid  there.  In  volume,  it  is  far  less  than  the 
others  :  it  keeps  the  cornea  prominent,  always  at  the 
same  distance  from  the  iris,  in  the  early  periods  of  life. 
The  space  occupied  by  the  aqueous  humor,  is  called  the 
anterior  chamber  of  the  eye.  (See  fig.  2,  letter/.)  Pass- 
ing freely  through  the  pupil,  it  also  fills  an  exceedingly 
thin  apartment,  the  circumference  of  the  iris,  called  the 
posterior  chamber.  Thus  it  will  be  comprehended,  that 
the  iris,  or  in  familiar  language,  first  curtain,  is  actually 
suspended  and  floating  in  a  liquor.  Were  it  not  for  such 
a  contrivance,  the  iris  would  soon  become  dry  and  shriv- 
elled, by  the  intensity  of  the  sun,  and  therefore  rendered 
totally  unfit  to  perform  its  appropriate  office  of  opening 

*  Aqueous  —  like  water. 
VOL.    I. NO.  V.  10 


110  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

and  closing  the  pupil.  An  opinion  is  current,  founded 
undoubtedly  in  truth,  that  the  aqueous  humor  is  never 
suffered  to  remain  long  at  a  time,  but,  on  the  contrary,  is 
constantly  poured  in  and  again  drawn  off  by  an  infinite 
number  of  invisible  ducts.  By  being  stationary,  it  would 
become  speedily  turbid,  and  finally  lose  its  transparency. 
A  knowledge  of  the  rapidity  of  the  secretion,  has  been 
the  means  of  encouraging  occulists  to  undertake  novel 
methods  of  extracting  cataracts,  a  kind  of  dark  mote, 
through  the  cornea,  as  the  most  certain  mode  of  restoring 
sight.  Twentyfour  hours  after  drawing  off  the  aqueous 
humor,  by  a  puncture,  the  anterior  chamber  will  be  full 
again. 

Old  age,  characterized  by  a  gradual  decay  in  the  vigor 
of  all  the  individual  organs,  shows  also  its  insidious  ap- 
proach in  the  eye.  Vessels  that  have  toiled  with  untiring 
diligence  to  the  meridian  of  life,  begin  to  show  a  loss 
of  energy.  Those  which  have  carried  the  new,  pure 
liquid,  forward  a  less  quantity  in  a  given  time  than  for- 
merly, —  while  those  whose  task  it  was  to  convey  away 
the  old  stock,  are  dilatory  in  the  performance  of  their 
work.  Hence,  from  being  kept  too  long  in  the  reservoir, 
in  consequence  of  a  tendency  to  become  more  turbid, 
does  not  allow  the  light  to  pass  with  former  facility  to  the 
nerve  :  elderly  persons,  therefore,  have  indistinct  vision 
from  this  cause,  similar  to  looking  through  a  smoky  at- 
mosphere. The  writer  has  a  favorite  Newfoundland  dog, 
whose  eyesight  is  impaired  in  this  way.  Fishes  have  no 
aqueous  humor  at  all,  as  it  could  be  of  no  service  in  the 
element  in  which  they  swim :  —  the  water  surrounding 
them  is  the  aqueous  humor  to  their  organs.  Kept,  as  the 
humor  is,  in  its  own  capsule,  gives  other  advantages  to 
the  apparatus  of  vision  :  it  is  a  concavo-convex  glass,  ab- 
solutely and  indispensably  requisite  in  an  instrument  that 
will  produce  an  image  by  the  same  laws  that  govern  the 
human  eye.  A  sensible  diminution  in  the  quantity  of 
this  fluid,  is  very  apparent  in  people  advanced  in  years : 
the  cornea  becomes  flatter  ;  the  segment  of  the  transpa- 
rent cornea  is  so  altered,  that  rays  of  light  are  no  longer 
converged  as  in  younger  days.  This,  together  with  cor- 
responding derangements  within  the  globe,  constitutes 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  Ill 

the  long-sightedness  of  old  age,  —  mechanically  overcome 
by  wearing  convex  spectacles.  So  gradually  are  the 
changes  wrought  by  aye,  that  glasses  of  different  focal 
distances  are  sought  from  time  to  time,  to  keep  pace  with 
the  progress  of  decay. 

The  ingenuity  of  man  is  nowhere  more  curiously  dis- 
played, than  in  thus  availing  himself  of  his  discovery  of 
the  laws  of  refraction,  in  producing  artificial  lenses  to 
gratify  his  eye,  a  never  failing  source  of  enjoyment,  long 
after  nature  has  begun  to  draw  the  blind  that  will  ulti- 
mately close  between  him  and  the  world  forever. 

CRYSTALLINE    LENS.* 

As  magnifying  glasses  of  different  refractive  pow- 
ers give  perfection  to  optical  apparatus,  so  it  is  with  re- 
spect to  the  lenses  within  the  ball.  The  coats  of  the  eye 
are  equivalent  to  the  tubes  of  such  ingenious  instruments. 
By  crystalline  lens,  is  simply  meant  a  body  like  a  button, 
resembling  pure  flint  glass,  somewhat  of  the  shape  of  a 
common  sun  glass,  convex  on  both  sides.  Its  posterior 
convexity  is  greater  than  its  anterior,  —  thereby  bringing 
the  rays  to  a  point  a  little  distance  behind  it.  Careful 
investigation  shows  that  this  lens  is  made  of  a  series  of 
plates,  applied  to  each  other  like  the  coats  of  an  onion : 
the  centre  is  firmer  than  the  edges  or  space  between  the 
nucleus  and  margin. 

As  a  whole,  it  possesses  a  highly  refractive  property, 
but  in  different  degrees,  according  to  the  thickness  of  the 
lens,  —  receding  from  the  centre  to  the  circumference. 
Over  the  whole,  to  keep  it  from  sliding  in  any  direction, 
that  the  centre  may  not  get  without  the  axis  of  vision, 
is  an  envelope,  having  connexion  with  all  the  coats,  where 
they  are  united  on  the  borders  of  the  cornea,  and  where 
it  joins  the  white  part  of  the  eye.  Being  equally  trans- 
parent with  the  lens  itself,  it  cannot  be  conveniently  ex- 
hibited. One  of  its  properties  is  elasticity,  though  not  to 
the  extent  we  should  at  first  view  be  led  to  imagine  from 
the  following  remarks. 

Cataracts,  the  most  frequent  cause  of  blindness,  origi- 

*  Crystalline  lens,  —  resembling  crystal  or  glass. 


1  12  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

nate  in  the  lens ;  sometimes  half  way  between  the  centre 
and  margin,  but  ordinarily  in  the  centre.  They  are  either 
a  peculiar  deposition  of  opaque  or  milky  matter,  entirely 
preventing  the  ingress  of  light,  or  an  opacity  of  some  of 
the  internal  layers  of  plates,  equally  destructive  to  vision. 
Nothing  short  of  the  actual  introduction  of  the  couching 
needle  within  the  globe,  or  a  knife,  promises  any  hope  of 
recovery.  Many  children  are  born  with  this  affection ; 
at  all  ages,  they  are  liable  to  form  :  perhaps  the  habit  of 
gazing  habitually  on  a  strongly  reflecting  surface,  may 
have  a  tendency  to  generate  the  disease.  To  remove  ca- 
taracts by  extraction,  the  operator  slides  a  sharp,  thin  knife, 
resembling  a  lancet,  through  the  cornea,  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  cutting  one  half  from  its  natural  attachment 
—  leaving  it,  when  the  knife  comes  out,  in  the  form  of  a 
flap,  thus :  FIG.  5. 


Explanation  of  Figure  5. 

This  plan  represents  an  eye,  surrounded  by  its  natural  appen- 
dages with  a  knife  passing  through  the  anterior  chamber  of  the  eye. 
A  dotted  line  indicates  the  lower  edge  of  the  flap,  made  by  cutting 
oflfjust  one  half  the  cornea  from  its  attachment  with  the  sclerotica,  in 
ordei1  to  allow  the  crystalline  lens  to  escape,  whenever  the  knife  is 
withdrawn. 

As  a  matter  of  course,  the  aqueous  humor  escapes  in  a 
twinkling,  at  the  same  moment,  the  capsule  of  the  lens, 
previously  ruptured, ^designedly,  by  the  point  of  the  knife, 
as  it  slides  along,  spasmodically  acts  upon  the  lens  by  spon- 
taneous contraction,  and  protrudes  it  through  the  wound. 
Undoubtedly,  the  grasp  which  the  straight  muscles  have  on 
the  ball,  accelerates  its  escape. 

Thus,  in  taking  away  the  obstruction  to  sight,  the 
whole  lens  is  extracted.  Perhaps  the  question  may  arise 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  113 


—  how  the  eye  is  to  answer  its  original  design  with  the 
loss  of  one  of  its  important  glasses  ? 

To  couch,  an  operation  often  mentioned,  and  often  per- 
formed, is  to  thrust  a  delicate  needle  through  the  white 
of  the  eye,  just  on  its  border,  till  the  point  reaches  the 
lens,  which  is  then  depressed  into  the  lower  part  of  the 
eye,  below  the  optic  axis,  so  that  light  may,  by  entering 
the  pupil,  arrive  at  the  nerve.  In  this  last  operation,  fears 
are  always  entertained,  that  the  lens  may  rise  again  to  its 
former  position,  rendering  a  repetition  of  the  operation 
indispensable.  Secondary  cataracts  sometimes  form,  after 
couching  or  extraction,  and  arise  in  consequence  of  a  thick- 
ening and  opacity  of  the  capsule,  which  is  left  behind. 
Such  cases  are  more  alarming  in  their  progress  than  a 
disease  of  the  lens,  as  no  surgeon  is  warranted  in  promis- 
ing even  a  partial  relief.  If  he  attempted  to  tear  away 
the  membrane,  he  might  also  rend  every  other  within  the 
globe. 

A  few  facts  of  this  kind  which  have  a.  practical  bearing, 
more  or  less  interesting  to  every  person,  may  lead  to  cor- 
rect views,  in  relation  to  some  of  the  diseases  which  are 
common  to  this  curious,  wonder-working  organ. 

FIG.  G. 
Explanation  of  Figure  6. 

This  is  a  scheme  showing  how 
a  bad  operator,  by  introducing 
the  couching  needle  too  near  the 
cornea,  may  rupture  the  ciliary 
processes,    and    actually  divide 
the  lens  in  two  pieces,  without 
moving  it  from  the  optic  axis. 
A  —  The  vitreous  humor, 
B  —  The  lens. 
CC — Ciliary  processes,  torn  by 

the  lower  part  of  the  need's, 

thereby  doing   great  violence 

and  a  permanent  injury  to  the 

organ. 

DD— The  iris. 
E  — The  anterior  chamber  of  the  aqueous  humor. 


VOL.    I. NO.  V. 


10* 


114  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


Explanation  of  Figure  1. 

This  figure  represents 
the  mode,  and,  in  fact, 
the  place  into  which  the 
cotiching  needle  is  in- 
troduced, in  the  opera- 
tion of  couching. 

A  —  The  pupil  is  seen 
through  the  transpa- 
rent cornea. 

B  — Thezm. 

C  —  The   needle,   with 

the  handle  elevated  so  as  to  depress  the  point. 

D — The  lens  and  point  of  the  needle  in  outline:  this  precisely 
represents  the  position  of  the  lens  after  couching.  To  complete 
the  operation,  it  must  be  carried  a  little  back  before  withdrawing 
the  needle. 

VITREOUS    HUMOR. 

Beyond  the  two  humors  we  have  been  describing,  is 
the  third,  differing  essentially  from  either  of  them.     In 
the  first  place,  in  volume  it  far  exceeds  the  others,  —  qp- 
cupying  more  than  two  thirds  of  the  whole  interior  and 
posterior  of  the  ball.     Its  consistence  is  that  of  the  white 
of  an  egg,  but  kept  in  its  place  by  its  own  appropriate 
capsule  ;  it  presents  many  interesting  phenomena.    When 
the  sack  is  punctured  with  a  pin,  it  flows  out  slowly,  in 
consequence  of  its  adhesiveness.     Like  the  preceding 
humors,  it  is  transparent,  allowing  the  free  passage  of 
light  through  its  substance,  and  also  possesses  the  addi- 
tional quality  of  allowing  the  rays   to  separate   again,  as 
they  leave  the  point  at  which  they  were  converged,  just 
back  of  the  lens.     Observation  proves  that  the  vitreous 
humor  is  kept  in  place  by  being  lodged  in  cells.     Per- 
haps a  piece  of  sponge  might  give  a  tolerable  idea  of  the 
cellular  structure,  admitting  it  to  be  as  transparent  as  the 
water  which  it  absorbs.    On  its  fore  part,  it  has  a  depres- 
sion, in   which  the  posterior  convexity  of  the  lens  is 
lodged,  —  as   represented  in    this  diagram.       Concave, 
therefore,  in  front,  and  convex  behind,  gives  another  kind 
of  optical  glass,  known  as  the  meniscus,  —  the  crescent, 
faintly  resembling  the  first  quarter  of  the  new  moon.     If 


ANIMAL   MECHANISM.  115 

by  accident,  or  a  want  of  skill,  the  operator  suffer  this 
humor  to  escape,  in  any  of  his  operations,  the  globe  at 
once  diminishes  in  size,  and  all  hope  of  the  restoration  of 
a  diseased  eye  is  lost.  The  small  mistake  of  pricking 
the  sack  containing  the  vitreous  humor,  will  decide 
whether  the  patient  is  to  live  in  never  ending  night. 

FIG.  8. 
Explanation  of  Figure  8. 

One  dotted  line,  indicates,  in 
this  diagram,  the  aqueous  hu- 
mor ;  another  the  iris,  and  a 
third  the  lens,  and  the  fourth 
the  vitreous  humor.  Let  it  be 
remembered  that  all  the  space 
between  the  back  side  of  the  lens 
and  optic  nerve,  is  filled  com- 
pletely, with  the  glairy,  vitreous 
humor,  the  third  fluid,  and  in- 
most of  the  eye. 

OPTIC    NERVE. 

Any  person  possessing  an  ordinary  share  of  curiosity, 
can  examine  the  optic  nerve,  or  nerve  of  'sight,  at  leis- 
ure, in  slaughter  houses,  fish  markets,  and  in  fowls.  In 
the  human  eye,  —  perhaps,  to  be  clearly  understood,  out- 
side the  eye,  as  it  extends  to  meet  the  brain,  it  is  like  a 
cotton  cord,  larger  than  a  wheat  straw,  of  a  rnealy  white- 
ness, not  far  from  three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  length. 
Arising  from  the  substance  of  the  brain,  it  traverses  the 
bony  canal  till  it  reaches  the  back  of  the  eye-ball ;  as 
soon  as  it  arrives  in  contact,  as  it  were,  it  is  suddenly 
divided  into  innumerable  filaments,  which  wend  their 
way  into  the  globe,  through  very  minute  holes.  From  a 
fanciful  resemblance  to  a  sieve,  this  spot  on  the  scleroti- 
ca,  is  called  the  cribriform  plate.  When  the  threads 
have  emerged  within,  they  assume  another  form,  by  ex- 
panding into  a  web,  constituting  a  third  or  inmost  box. 
Some  believe  the  nerve  is  spread  on  a  thin,  unseen  mem- 
brane, in  the  form  of  a  highly  organized  nervous  paste. 
Here,  on  this  pulp,  having  considerable  range  of  surface, 
is  the  sole  seat  of  vision.  A  vulgar  opinion  presupposes 
pome  exceedingly  acute  nervous  point,  —  the  exquisite 


116  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

point  of  vision.  Nothing,  however,  is  more  absurd; 
vision  includes  considerable  surface.  In  the  centre  of 
the  substance  of  the  nerve,  an  artery  penetrates  the  eye, 
accompanying  the  Jilaments,  to  nourish  the  humors. 
When  the  cornea  has  been  cut  away,  and  the  iris  detach- 
ed, this  vessel  may  be  distinguished,  of  a  bright  scarlet, 
spreading  its  hair-like  branches  about,  like  the  limbs  of 
a  tree.  The  nerves  which  give  sensation  to  the  eye, 
connecting  it  with  the  system,  may  be  noticed,  as  previ- 
ously remarked,  lying  between  the  two  first  coats.  The 
optic  nerve  conveys  to  the  mind  the  sensation  of  the  ex- 
istence of  things,  as  perceived  by  the  eye,  while  the 
commands  of  the  same  mind  are  conveyed  to  it  by  these 
little  threads  of  nerves,  so  insignificant,  as  to  be  often 
overlooked  in  a  dissection  made  purposely  for  them. 
FIG.  9. 


Explanation  of  Figure  9. 

In  this  figure,  the  cornea  is  cut  away,  and  the  sclerotic  dissected 
back.  This  is  a  beautiful  and  easily  accomplished  dissection.  In  a 
bullock's  eye  all  these  delicate  nerves  can  be  readily  displayed.  A 
pair  of  sharp  pointed  scissors  and  a  few  pins,  to  hold  parts  to  a  board, 
are  the  proper  instruments.  Even  in  schools,  ladies  could  exhibit 
most  of  this  beautiful  optical  apparatus. 


ANIMAL   MECHANISM.  1  17 

a  —  The  optic  nerve. 

b  —  The  sclerotic  coat  turned  back,  so  as  to  show  the  vessels  of  the 
choroid  coat. 

ce  —  The  ciliary  nerves,  seen  piercing  the  sclerotic  coat,  and  pass- 
ing forward  to  be  distributed  to  the  iris.  The  iris,  so  highly 
organized,  is  not  supplied  by  any  nervous  influence  from  the  optic, 
but  by  the  hair-Jike  nerves,  here  displayed,  creeping  to  its  map- 
gin  between  the  two  exterior  coats. 

d  —  A  small  nerve  passing  from  the  same  source  to  the  same  termi- 
nation, but  giving  off  no  visible  branches. 

ee  —  Two  vena  vorticosce,  or  whirling  veins,  so  denominated,  because 
they  seem  to  fall  into  shapes,  resembling  falling  jets  of  water ; 
these  return  the  blood  from  the  eye,  sent  in  by  its  central  and 
other  arteries. 

/ — A  point  of  the  sclerotic^  through  which  the  trunk  of  one  of  the 
veins  has  passed. 

—  A  lesser  vein. 

—  The  point,  or  circular  point  of  union,  where  all  the  coats  of  the 
eye,  together  with  the  cornea  and  iris,  seem  to  be  glued  firmly 
together. 

t —  The  iris. 

A;  — The  straight  fibres  of  the  iris. 

I  —  A  circle  of  fibres  or  vessels,  which  divide  the  iris  into  the  larger 

circle  /,:  —  and  the  lesser  one  m. 
m  —  This  letter  points  to  the  lesser  circle  of  the  iris, 
n  —  The  fibres  of  the  lesser  circle, 
G  —  The  pupil. 

PIGMENTUM    NIGRUM.* 

Lastly,  to  complete  the  internal  structure,  and  fit  it  for 
the  performance  of  its  destined  office,  the  inside  surface 
of  the  second  coat,  choroides,  is  thoroughly  painted  black. 
In  the  order  of  explanation,  thjs  paint  is  just  behind  the 
retina.  When  the  humors  have  been  taken  out  the  pig- 
ment is  readily  examined.  The  use  of  it  is  very  obvious; 
viz.,  to  absorb  any  aberrating  or  unnecessary  rays  of 
light,  which  confuse  the  vision  ;  or  destroy  the  intensity 
of  the  impression  on  the  nervous  expansion  of  the  retina, 
—  and  indeed,  to  suffocate  them  entirely. 

JUNICA    CONJUNCTIVA. 

Posteriorly,  the  eye,  by  its  long  cord  of  optic  nerve, 
seems  to  rest  on  one  extremity  of  an  axle  ;  —  the  opposite 
in  front,  being  the  skin,  passing  over  the  eye,  as  it  conies 

*Pigmentum  Nigrum  —  black  paint 


118  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

down  from  the  forehead,  to  join  the  cheek.  To  compre- 
hend, clearly,  the  manner  in  which  the  eye  is  fastened, 
before,  —  observe  how  the  skin  turns  over  the  edge 
of  the  lid,  going  about  three  quarters  of  an  inch  back, 
striking  the  ball  to  which  it  is  made  fast,  then  folded  back 
upon  itself,  adhering  to  the  whole  anterior  surface  of  the 
cornea,  —  dipping  down  and  finally  mounting  over  the 
margin  of  the  lower  lid,  and  ultimately  losing  itself  on 
the  face.  As  we  cannot  recognise  this,  on  a  living  eye, 
it  will  at  once  lead  one  to  suppose  it  is  as  clear  as  glass, 
which  is  the  case.  Streaks  of  blood,  when  the  eye  is 
inflamed,  lie  covered  over  by  the  tunica  conjunctiva. 
Now  if  particles  of  sand,  or  other  irritating  substances 
get  under  either  eye-lid,  they  cannot  possibly  enter  but 
little  way,  before  reaching  the  duplication  of  this  trans- 
parent skin  ;  there  is  no  danger,  therefore  ;  the  offending 
matter  cannot  get  so  far  between  the  socket  and  ball, 
backward,  as  to  abridge  the  free  motion  of  the  organ,  or 
do  a  permanent  injury  to  the  parts.  This  partition,  or 
doubling  over  of  the  conjunctiva,  is  a  curious  provision, 
as  we  are  thereby  enabled  to  reach  the  source  of  irrita- 
tion. The  principle  of  introducing  eye-stones,  to  extract 
foreign  matter,  is  this,  and  not  owing,  as  vulgarly  sup- 
posed, to  the  crawling  about  of  a  smooth  piece  of  sulphate 
of  lime,  on  some  forty  or  fifty  feet.  The  stone  is  so 
much  larger  than  the  extraneous  body,  already  there, 
that  it  excites  a  proportionably  larger  quantity  of  tears,  to 
wash  it  away  :  in  essence,  therefore,  we  submit  to  a 
greater  temporary  evil,  to  get  rid  of  a  lesser  one.  Pre- 
cisely on  this  principle,  a  person  chewing  tobacco,  is 
constantly  spitting  :  the  vile  weed  is  so  offensive  to  the 
nerves  about  the  region  of  the  throat  and  tongue,  —  a 
stimulant  so  unnatural  and  uncongenial  to  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  body,  that  the  saliva  is  poured  out,  with  in- 
creasing copiousness,  to  wash  it  from  the  mouth. 

Serpents  annually  shed  their  skins,  which,  unaccount- 
able as  it  at  first  appears,  are  whole  over  the  holes  where 
the  eyes  were.  That  thin  sheet,  so  very  clear  and  fine 
in  texture,  is  the  conjunctiva,  showing  its  origin, — hence 
a  similar  origin  may  safely  be  inferred  over  other  eyes. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  119 

Every  species  of  animal  with  which  naturalists  are  con- 
versant, possess  this  defensive  transparent  membrane. 

MEMBRANA    NICTITANS. 

A  third  eye-lid  is  given  such  animals  as  are  destitute 
of  hands,  or  are  incapacitated,  by  the  arrangement  of  their 
limbs,  from  reaching  their  eyes.  This  is  called  mem- 
brana  nictitans,  —  and  a  more  striking  piece  of  mechan- 
ism, there  is  not  in  existence.  It  slides  from  one  angle 
of  the  eye  to  the  opposite  one,  under  the  first  pair  of  lids, 
—  and  that,  too,  whether  the  others  are  open  or  shut, 
being  totally  independent  of  them  in  muscular  action. 
Its  use  cannot  be  mistaken  :  it  is  on  purpose  for  clearing 
away  matter  that  may  be  irritating  to  the  eye.  Any  ex- 
traneous substance  is  brushed  from  the  cornea  in  an 
instant,  by  the  broad  sweep  of  the  night  lid.  Birds  that 
seek  their  food  in  the  night,  as  owls,  defend  their  irrita- 
ble organs,  through  the  glare  of  daylight,  by  drawing  over 
this  singular  curtain.  Dogs,  cats,  foxes,  wolves,  bears, 
lions,  tigers,  &c,  can  each  of  them,  by  this  brush,  remove 
the  minutest  mote  from  the  cornea,  more  expeditiously 
than  any  occulist  on  the  globe. 


Perfection  is  everywhere  observed  in  animal  mechanics. 
The  eye  would  soon  become  a  useless  instrument,  not- 
withstanding the  nice  adjustment  of  its  several  parts, 
were  it  not  for  the  external  apparatus  of  eye-lids,  glands 
and  tears,  whose  combined  action  keeps  it  always  in  a 
condition  to  be  useful.  Were  not  the  cornea  frequently 
moistened,  it  would  become  dry  and  shrivelled.  To  ob- 
viate this,  a  sack  of  fluid  is  fixed  just  under  the  edge  of 
the  orbit,  above  the  eye-ball,  which  is  continually  pouring 
out  its  contents  by  the  pressure  and  rolling  of  the  eye. 
Flowing  through  numberless  apertures,  it  washes  the 
crystal,  and  finally  passing  into  grooves,  on  the  inner 
margin  of  both  eye-lids,  runs  to  their  terminations  in  a 
small  pin  like  orifice,  at  the  inner  angles.  To  keep  them 
open,  a  hoop  is  set  in  the  mouth  of  this  lachrymal  duct. 
This,  too,  can  be  shown  by  turning  the  lid  outward  by 
the  finger.  Finally,  the  tears  are  conveyed  into  the  nose 


120 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


FIG.  10. 


through  a  bony  tube,  answering  the  double  purpose  of 
softening  and  keeping  moist  the  living  membrane,  on 
which  the  sense  of  smell  depends.  On  both  eye-lids, 
at  the  roots  of  the  eye-lashes,  are  in  each,  a  row  of  glands, 
equivalent  to  bags,  smaller  than  pin  heads,  which  ooze 
out  an  oily  secretion,  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  them  to- 
gether, as  is  sometimes  the  case  when  the  eyes  ,  are 
much  inflamed.  Surely  such  manifest  provision  for 
contingencies,  and  for  the  preservation  of  this  one 
piece  of  mechanism,  indicates  Super-human  contrivance. 
Explanation  of  Figure  10. 

This  plan  exhibits  the  na- 
tural size  of  the  passages  of 
the  t<ears. 
a—  Is  the  lacrymal  gland,  or 

in  other  words,  the  organ 

that  secretes    the    tears; 

showing  its  natural  situa- 

tion, with  respect  to  the 

eye-lids. 
bb  —  The    eye-lids,   widely 

opened. 
c  —  The    situation    of    the 

puncta  lacrymalia,  or  the 

holes,  at  the  inner  angles 

of  the  lids,  through  which 

the  tears  flow,  to  get  into 

the  tube  which  finally  con- 

veys the  fluid  to  the  nose. 

dd  —  The  ducts  continued  from  the  puncta  lacrymalia. 
ee  —  The  angles  which  the  ducts  form  after  leaving  the  puncta. 
/  —  The  termination  of  the  lacrymal  ducts  in  gg. 

fg  —  The  lacrymal  sac. 
—  The  nasal  duct,  continued  from  the  lacrymal  sac. 


ON    SEEING    AT    A    DISTANCE. 

When  we  speak  of  the  distance  to  which  vision  extends, 
we  can  understand  either  the  sphere  of  distinct  vision,  or 
of  seeing  in  general.  The  latter  has  a  much  larger 
semi-diameter  than  the  former  ;  and  the  series  for  the  one 
is  in  animals  different  from  that  of  the  other.  The  extent 
of  distinct  vision,  is  pretty  nearly  in  relation  with  the 
distance  of  the  lens  from  the  retina  in  the  axis  of  the  eye. 
But  the  power  of  seeing  at  a  distance,  depends,  in  gene- 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


121 


ral,  in  land  animals,  on  the  absolute  magnitude  of  the 
semi-diameter  of  the  external  surface  of  the  cornea.  The 
larger  this  is,  the  greater  is  the  number  of  rays  that  reach 
from  distant  objects  through  the  cornea  to  the  interior  of 
the  eye;  and  the  more  easily  are  such  objects  rendered 
visible.  But  this  applies  to  land  animals  only.  The 
cornea  has  no  such  value  in  aquatic  animals,  in  arresting 
the  rays  of  light,  as  that  the  limits  of  vision  can  be  de- 
termined by  it.  If  we  arrange  land  animals  and  birds  ac- 
cording to  the  measure  of  their  power  of  seeing  in  the 
distance,  we  obtain  the  following  series : 

32 
28 
27 
27 
25 
25 
23 
22 
22 
20 
19 
17 
15 
11 
20 
19 
19 
18 
14 
12 
4 
9 

In  this  table  the  larger  animals,  in  general,  are  those 
that  see  farthest.  But  there  are  exceptions  to  this  rule. 
It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  birds  which,  in  the  distinct 
vision  of  a  point,  precede  quadrupeds  of  similar  magni- 
tude, are  inferior  to  them  in  distant  vision,  and  that  man 
agrees  with  birds  in  this  respect.  Thus  the  great  owl, 
(Striee,  Bubo,)  ostrich,  and  golden  eagle,  excel  in  the 

VOL.    I.  NO.    T.  11 


Horse      - 

73 

Rough-legged  Falon 

Ox      -       -       -       - 

66 

Buzzard      - 

Asiatic  Elephant    - 

65 

Night-Heron    -     - 

Antelope  Rupicapra 

64 

Short-eared  Owl 

Lynx      - 

55 

Psittacus  Aracanga 

Kangaroo    -     -       - 

50 

Turkey        -     -       - 

Wolf       .... 

45 

Tame  Swan    -     - 

Fox     -      -      -       - 

38 

Ardea  stellaris    -      - 

Man  

34 

Carrion  Crow 

Simia  Inuus 

30 

Tarrock       - 

Hystrix  cristata   - 

30 

Green  Woodpecker 

Marmot      - 

28 

Corvus  glandarius   - 

Brown  Bear     -      -       - 

27 

Yellow  Oriole   -     - 

Otter      -     -      -       - 

26 

Psittacus  rufirostris 

Ursus  Lotor     -     - 

25 

Virginian  Opossum 

Simia  Capucina 

24 

Common  Squirrel    - 

Beaver     - 

23 

Badger      -     - 

Polecat 

23 

Cavia  Cobaya     - 

Horned  Owl   -      - 

56 

Water  Rat      -     - 

Ostrich       -    ~  - 

50 

Hamster      - 

Golden  Eagle 

40 

Long-eared  Bat    - 

Stork     .... 

33 

Crossbill       -    -      - 

122  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

first  point ;  in  the  latter  are  inferior  to  the  ox,  elephant, 
&-c.  The  chamoi  and  the  Lynx,  and  many  other  ani- 
mals, have  a  wider  power  of  vision  than  man,  in  which 
the  radius  of  the  sphere  of  distinct  vision  is  much  smaller 
than  in  him. 

This  conclusion  is  contrary  to  the  -generally  received 
opinion  on  the  subject.  Birds,  and  particularly  rapacious 
birds,  are  considered  as  having  a  much  greater  power  of 
distant  vision  than  most  quadrupeds ;  and  many  will  be 
disposed  to  challenge  the  fact,  that  the  ox  possesses  this 
power  in  an  equally  high,  or  even  higher  degree.  But 
when  we  consider  fairly  the  experience  on  this  subject, 
we  shall  find  that  it  is  not  in  opposition  to  what  has  just 
been  stated.  Mayer  found  in  his  experiments  on  the 
acuteness  of  vision,  that,  in  seeing,  it  depends  not  only 
on  the  illumination  of  the  object,  and  its  distance  from 
the  eye,  but  also  on  the  relation  of  the  object  and  the  eye 
to  the  neighborhood.  But  it  is  quite  otherwise  with  birds 
which  look  from  above,  downwards,  or  with  quadrupeds, 
whose  vision  is  directed  upwards  or  forwards.  No  one 
has  measured  the  great  distance  at  which  a  far-seeing  bird 
perceives  its  prey ;  and  indeed  it  will  always  be  difficult 
to  do  this  with  accuracy.  But  Treviranus  remarks,  '  I 
doubt  not,  if  we  possessed  certain  observation  on  this 
point,  that  the  greatest  distance  would  not  exceed  that  of 
a  far-seeing  man. 

When,  for  example,  Faber,  in  proof  of  the  sharpness 
of  the  sight  of  birds,  remarks,  '  the  high  flying  eagle  or  the 
kite  perceive  the  motions  of  small  animals  on  the  ground  ; 
the  solan  sees  a  very  small  fish  from  a  considerable 
height ;  and  gulls,  terns,  rapacious  gulls,  '(Lcftri,)  and 
petrels,  fly  from  all  sides  to  a  particular  point,  where 
an  object  is  seen  floating  on  water  ;  he  presents  us  with 
data  which  are  far  from  being  satisfactory.  When,  on 
the  contrary,  Ross  affirms,  in  his  voyage  to  Baffin's  Bay, 
that  he  obtained  certain  data,  proving  that  the  power  of 
vision  of  man  over  the  surface  of  the  sea  extended  to  150 
English  miles,  it  is  conceivable  that  the  farthest  seeing 
bird  could  not  exceed  this.  But  experience  would  seem  to 
show,  that  birds,  although  in  general  their  power  of  distant 
vision  is  not  very  great,  that  they  possess  a  very  sharp  sight 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  123 

in  a  greater  distance  than  most  quadrupeds.  There  are 
many  curious  observations  illustrative  of  what  we  have  just 
said.  He  says,  he  threw,  at  a  considerable  distance  from 
a  throstle  or  mavis  (  Turdus  musicus)  a  few  small  beetles, 
of  a  pale  gray  color,  which  the  unassisted  human  eye 
could  not  discover,  yet  the  throstle  observed  them  imme- 
diately, and  devoured  them.  The  long  tail  titmouse 
(Parus  Cordatus)  flits  with  great  quickness  among  the 
branches  of  trees,  and  finds  on  the  very  smooth  bark  its 
particular  food.  When  we  examine  the  spots  where  it 
stops  for  food,  nothing  is  perceived  by  the  naked  eye, 
although  minute  insects  are  visible  by  means  of  the 
magnifying  glass.  A  very  tame  redbreast  (Sylvia  rebecula) 
discovered  from  the  height  of  the  branch  where  it  usually 
sat,  at  the  distance  of  eighteen  feet,  small  crumbs  of 
bread  spread  out  on  the  ground,  the  instant  they  were 
thrown  down  ;  and  this,  by  bending  its  head  to  one  side, 
and  therefore  using  only  one  eye.  A  quail,  at  the  same 
distance,  discovered,  by  the  use  of  only  one  eye,  some 
poppy  seeds. 

A    REASON    WHY    PERSONS     IN    ADVANCED     LIFE,    REQUIRE 
CONVEX    GLASSES. 

Age  gradually  relaxes  the  tension  of  the  whole  system  ; 
the  eye,  therefore,  suffers  in  a  corresponding  ratio.  The 
cornea  becomes  less  prominent :  —  the  convexity  of  the 
lens  is  also  diminished,  and  the  rays  of  light  are  conse- 
quently less  convergent  than  formerly.  The  picture  of 
the  object  is  faint,  because  the  rays  have  a  tendency,  by 
their  divergency,  to  impinge  at  a  supposable  plane,  be- 
yond the  retina. 

FIG.  11. 


Explanation  of  Figure  11. 

In   this  figure    is   represented   the    effect  of  old   age    on   the 

humors:   without  the  intervention  of  the  glass  A,  the  rays  have 


124  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

a  direction  which  would  form  the  image  at  some  distance  beyond 
the  retina,  as  at  B.  But,  by  the  convex  glass  A,  which,  for 
example,  is  the  spectacle  worn  by  aged  people,  the  direction  of 
the  rays  of  light  is  so  corrected,  that  the  image  falls  accurately  on 
the  bottom  of  the  «ye,  or  retina. 

When  the  convex  lens  is  interposed  between  the  eye 
and  object,  as  represented  in  the  above  diagram,  the  rays 
are  made  more  converging,  —  so  that  the  picture  strikes 
exactly  and  distinctly  on  the  nerve.  People  slide  their 
spectacles  on  the  nose  unconsciously  till  the  true  focus  is 
procured. 

A     REASON     WHY    NEAR-SIGHTED    PERSONS    SER    INDIS- 
TINCTLY. 

Either  the  crystalline  lens,  but  more  generally  the 
cornea,  is  too  prominent  —  converging  the  light  too  sud- 
denly ;  —  that  is,  converging  the  luminous  rays  at  an  un- 
natural place  within  the  vitreous  humor.  An  indistinct 
outline  of  the  object  is  the  effect  of  their  great  divergency, 
after  decussating  —  before  they  arrive  at  the  retina.  The 
following  diagrams  will  illustrate  the  subject  far  better 
than  a  whole  volume  of  written  explanations. 

FIG.  12. 


Explanation  of  Figure  12. 

In  this  figure,  the  convexity  of  the  cornea,  or  the  focal  powers  of 
the  lens,  being  too  great  for  the  length  of  the  axis  of  the  eye,  the 
image  is  formed  at  A,  before  the  rays  reach  the  surface  of  the  retinat 
or  inner  box,  illustrated  in  Fig.  2,  letter  c;  and  after  coming  accu- 
rately to  the  point,  they  again  begin  to  diverge ;  which  diverging 
rays,  striking  the  surface  of  the  retina,  give  the  indistinct  vision  of 
the  near-sighted  individual.  But  as  this  indistinctness  of  vision 

Sroceeds  from  no  opacity,  but  only  the  disproportion  of  the  convex- 
;y  of  the  eye  to  the  diameter,  the  defect  is  corrected  by  a  concave 
glass,  represented  in  the  next  figure. 

Concave  glasses  are  the  restoratives  of  the  near-sighted 
eye,  by  separating  the  rays,  and  carrying  the  image  so 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  125 

far  back  as  to  place  it  on  the  retina.  Old  age,  the  de- 
struction of  the  first  eye,  eventually  restores  the  near- 
sighted, by  the  gradual  flattening  of  the  cornea,  till  at 
threescore  and  ten,  such  persons  can  see  clearly  and 
distinctly  without  artificial  aid.  Many  near-sighted 
people  totally  ruin  the  organ  by  prematurely  wearing 
glasses,  as  a  focus  is  established  which  neither  glasses  can 
keep  pace  with  in  age,  nor  age  thoroughly  overcome. 
FIG.  13 


Explanation  of  Figure  13. 
The  effect  of  this  glass  being  exactly  the  reverse  of  the  convex, 
it  causes  the  rays  to  fall  upon  the  surface  of  the  eye,  so  far  di- 
verging from  the  perpendicular  line,  as  to  correct  the  too  great  con- 
vergence, caused  by  the  convexity  of  the  humors.  When  a  near- 
sighted person  has  brought  the  object  near  enough  to  the  eye  to  see 
it  distinctly,  he  sees  more  minutely  and  consequently  more  clearly  ; 
because  he  sees  the  object,  says  Mr  Bell,  larger,  and  as  a  person 
with  a  common  eye  does,  when  assisted  with  a  magnifying  glass. 
A  near-sighted  person  sees  distant  objects  indistinctly  ,  and,  as  the 
eye,  in  consequence,  rests,  says  the  same  observing  writer,  with 
less  accuracy  upon  surrounding  objects,  the  piercing  look  of  the 
eye  is  very  much  diminished  ;  and  it  has,  moreover,  a  dulness  and 
heaviness  of  aspect.  Again,  the  near-sighted  person  knits  his  eye- 
brows, and  half  closes  the  eye-lids  ;  this  he  does  unconsciously,  to 
change  the  direction  of  the  rays,  and  to  correct  the  inaccuracy  of 
the  image.  Near-sighted  people  have  but  little  expression ;  the 
countenance  loses  all  its  majesty,  by  habitually  wearing  glasses. 

THE    IMAGE    OF  AN    OBJECT    IN    THE    EYE,    IS    INVERTED. 

Rays  of  light  going  from  the  upper  and  lower  points  of 
an  object,  are  refracted  towards  the  perpendicular  ;  that  is, 
bent  out  of  the  course  which  they  have  a  tendency  to 
run,  by  the  crystalline  lens  behind,  where  they  unite  in 
a  point,  —  and,  then  crossing,  diverge  again.  Here  then, 
the  image  is  bottom  upward,  as  will  be  noticed  in  the 
preceding  diagrams  by  the  arrow,  and  its  image  on  the 
retina.  Decussation  is  indispensable  to  the  vision  of 
things.  An  object  could  not  be  represented  on  a  point ; 

VOL.    I. NO.    V.  11* 


126  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

there  must  be  surface  to  create  an  image  on,  and  by  the 
laws  of  optics,  the  representation  of  the  object,  without  an 
additional  glass  within  the  eye,  must  necessarily  be  as 


HOW    THE    OBJECT    APPEARS    IN    ITS    TRUE    POSITION,    THE 
IMAGE    BEING    INVERTED. 

Habit  is  supposed  to  be  the  cause  of  seeing  objects  as 
they  really  exist,  in  relation  to  surrounding  bodies.*  A 
few  philosophers  conceive  that  the  mind  contemplates 
the  object  only,  without  reference  to  its  representative 
on  the  retina,  which  is  made  there  as  a  natural  result. 
Certain  it  is,  that  without  the  image,  there  is  no  vision. 
How  the  brain  is  operated  upon  by  the  light  that  defines 
the  object,  will  probably  never  be  known.  The  minute- 
ness of  the  miniature  traced  on  the  retina,  precisely  like 
the  object  in  every  minute  particular,  is  truly  astonishing. 
By  cutting  off  the  coats  of  a  bullock's  eye,  and  holding 
a  clean  white  paper  near,  this  beautiful  exhibition  can  be 
leisurely  observed.  If  a  sheet  of  white  cotton  cloth,  six 
feet  square,  is  elevated  '24,000  feet  in  the  air,  the  eye 
being  supposed  one  inch  in  diameter,  the  miniature  of 
the  sail  on  the  retina  will  be  only  one  eight  thousandth 
part  of  an  inch  square ;  which  is  equivalent  to  the  666th 
part  of  a  line,  —  being  only  the  6(ith  part  of  the  width 
of  a  common  hair  !  Leaving  this  point  to  philosophers, 
we  proceed  to  such  facts  as  are  susceptible  of  positive 
demonstration. 

HOW,    WITH    BOTH    EYES,    ONLY    ONE    OBJECT    IS    SEEN. 

At  one  side  of  the  centre  of  each  eye,  there  is  a  sur- 
face more  susceptible  of  visual  impressions  than  any 
other.  These  points  correspond  in  both  eyes  —  being 
precisely  on  the  two  retinas  alike.  An  impression  there- 
fore on  one,  provided  the  light  strikes  them  equally,  pro- 
duces precisely  the  same  effect  on  both.  This,  instead 


*  A  Dr  Reed,  of  Cork,  has  recently  attempted  to  demonstrate 
that  the  cornea  is  the  true  seat  of  vision,  and  that  we  see  by  means 
of  erect  and  reflected,  and  not  by  refracted  and  inverted  images. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  1127 

of  making  vexation,  gives  strength  or  greater  vividness, 
as  the  images  are  on  surfaces  of  the  same  structure, 
transmitting,  through  the  two  optic  nerves,  the  same 
idea,  or  that  indescribable  something  that  creates  an  idea. 
The  optic  axes,  spoken  of  in  the  books,  by  this  explana- 
tion, will  be  understood.  If  one  eye  is  distorted, — 
pushed  by  the  finger  one  side,  when  we  are  in  the  act  of 
contemplating  an  object,  it  will  appear  double,  but  less 
distinct  in  the  one  so  distorted.  The  rationale  is  this; 
viz.  the  visual  surface  on  which  the  image  is  made,  so 
exactly  alike  in  both  eyes,  as  to  call  up  but  one  idea,  be- 
ing forced  out  of  the  optic  axis,  the  rays  still  make  the 
picture,  but  on  a  surface,  less  highly  organized,  —  that 
does  not  correspond  with  the  surface  on  that  retina  which 
has  not  been  disturbed.  The  two  images  have  now  dif- 
ferent localities.  No  course  of  experiments  are  more 
within  the  reach  of  those  who  have  the  desire  to  experi- 
ment, than  these.* 

*  Generally  the  eyes  of  insects  are  of  two  kinds ;  viz.  simple  and 
compound,  having  the  appearance  of  two  crescents,  making  the  larg- 
est part  of  the  head,  and  containing  an  infinite  number  of  little  hex- 
agonal protuberances,  convex,  and  placed  in  lines.  The  number  of 
lenses  in  one  eye,  vary  in  different  insects.  Hooke  computed  those 
in  the  eye  of  the  tabanns  or  horse-fly,  to  amount  to  nearly  7000. 
Loewenhoek  found  in  that  of  the  libelltda,  (dragon-fly)  12,544 ;  and 
17,325  have  been  counted  in  a  common  butterfly ;  the  picture  of  an 
object,  impinged  on  their  retinas,  must  be  millions  and  millions  of 
times  smaller  than  in  the  human  eye.  Some  insects  have  a  still 
more  curious  apparatus  of  vision ;  three  small  spherical  protube- 
rances rise  from  the  top  of  the  head,  and  are  eyes,  in  addition  to  the  or- 
dinary ones  on  the  side  of  the  head.  They  are  solely  for  seeing  distant 
objects;  the  first,  for  near  ones.  Loewenhoek  looked  through  the 
eye  of  a  dragon-fly  with  a  microscope,  as  a  telescope,  and  viewed 
the  steeple  of  a  church,  which  was  299  feet  high  and  750  feet  dis- 
tant. He  plainly  saw  the  steeple,  though  it  did  not  appear  larger 
than  the  point  of  a  very  fine  needle.  He  also  viewed  a  house  and 
could  distinguish  the  front,  discern  the  doors  and  windows,  and 
moreover,  perceive  whether  they  were  open  or  shut.  The  writer 
has  recently  seen  the  light  strongly  reflected  from  the  eye  of  the 
bee-moth,  which  precisely  resembled  the  ground  faces  of  a  stone 
in  a  Cratch  seal.  This,  therefore,  was  a  multiplying  eye.  Several 
insects  present  the  same  structure,  hut  nature's  object  is  not  under- 
stood by  entomologists. 


128 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


FlQ.  14. 


Explanation  of  Figure  14. 

In  this  figure,  B,  B,  the  eyes, 
having  their  axes  directed  to  A, 
will  see  the  object  C,  double, 
somewhere  near  the  outline  D,  D. 
Because  the  line  of  the  direction 
of  the  rays  from  C,  do  not  strike 
the  retina  in  the  same  relation  to 
the  axis  A,  B,  in  both  eyes.  If  a 
candle  is  placed  at  the  distance  of 
ten  feet,  and  1  hold  my  finger  at 
arm's  length,  between  the  eye 
and  the  candle,  when  I  look  at  the 
candle,  my  finger  appears  double, 
and  when  I  look  at  the  finger,  the 
candle  is  double. 


Explanation  of  Figure  15. 

A  is  exactly  in  the  centre  of 
the  axes  of  both  eyes  ;  consequent- 
ly it  is  distinctly  seen,  and  it  also 
appears  single,'  because  the  form 
of  it  strikes  upon  the  points  of  the 
retina,  opposite  to  the  pupils  in 
both  eyes.  Those  points,  as  before 
remarked,  have  a  correspondence, 
and  the  object,  instead  of  appear 
ing  double,  is  only  strengthened  in 
the  liveliness  of  the  image.  Again, 
the  object  B  will  be  seen  fainter, 
but  single  and  correct.  It  will 
appear  fainter,  because  there  is 
only  one  spot  in  each  eye,  which 
possesses  the  degree  of  sensibility 
necessary  to  perfect  vision  :  thus, 
it  will  be  understood,  the  object  will  appear  single,  as  the  rays  of 
light  proceeding  from  it  have  exactly  the  same  relation  to  the 
centre  of  the  retinas,  in  both  eyes. 

THE  REASONS  WHY    CROSS-EYED  PERSONS    SEE  ONLY  WITH 
ONE    EYE. 

With  such  as  have  a  permanent  squint,  (cross-eye,) 
only  one  eye  is  attended  to,  though  they  may  not  be  ap- 
prehensive of  the  fact.  From  continued  neglect,  the 
distorted  organ  wanders  farther  and  farther  from  the  axis 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  129 

of  vision,  till  it  finally  becomes  totally  useless  :  hence  one 
is  doubtful,  at  times,  which  way  the  cross-eyed  person  is 
4 looking,  from  a  want  of  parallelism  in  the  motions  of  the 
eyes.  When  the  wandering  eye  is  exclusively  attended 
to,  the  vision  appears  unimpaired.  The  image  is  well 
painted  in  the  natural  one,  but  weak  in  the  other,  solely 
because  the  place  of  the  image  does  not  correspond  with 
the  place  of  the  image  in  the  first.  The  mind,  instinct- 
ively, therefore,  is  devoted  to  the  eye  that  gives  the  live- 
liest impression,  to  the  entire  neglect  of  its  aberrating 
fellow. 

THE     REASON     WHY     THE     PUPILS    OF    AN     ALBINo's     EYES 
ARE    RED. 

If  a  person  is  born  without  the  pigment  um  nigrum,  — 
heretofore  defined  to  be  a  paint  to  suffocate  all  unneces- 
sary light,  as  it  goes  through  the  retina,  after  the  image 
is  formed,  —  the  blood  vessels  of  which  the  tunica  choroides 
or  second  coat  is  made,  are  not  hidden.  Consequently, 
they  show  through  the  transparent  humors,  like  a  spark- 
ling red  gem,  the  size  of  the  diameter  of  the  pupil.  If 
a  delicate  brush  could  be  inserted  to  give  it  a  black  coat 
of  paint,  the  eye  would  appear  as  others  do.  Such  per- 
sons can  see  better  in  a  weak  light  than  in  broad  day, 
because  the  brightness  of  the  sun's  light  dazzles,  and 
produces  a  tremulous  motion  in  the  whole  organ.  As  an 
evidence  that  this  redness  is  caused  by  the  blood  in  the 
vessels,  after  death,  when  it  coagulates,  the  redness,  in  a 
great  measure,  disappears.  White  rabbits,  white  mice, 
brought  in  cages  from  China,  besides  a  vast  variety  of 
birds,  have  no  pigment  on  the  choroides }  and  are  there- 
fore distinguished  for  red  pupils.  The  existence  of  the 
pigmentum  nigrum,  is  a  concomitant  of  a.  day-seeing  eye. 
In  man,  the  want  of  it,  constituting  the  albino,  is  an 
anomaly. 

A  morbid  action  of  the  absorbents  sometimes  removes 
the  paint,  and  the  pupil,  to  the  surprise  of  observers,  be- 
comes scarlet.  A  partial  absorption  of  it  is  often  the 
cause  of  a  diminution  of  the  original  powers  of  vision  : 
under  such  circumstances,  the  pupil  assumes  a  bronze 
hue,  accompanied  by  a  debility  and  tremor  of  the  globe 
under  the  influence  of  a  moderate  degree  of  light, 


130  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

The  writer  remembers  an  accomplished  female  albino, 
who  publicly  exhibited  herself  in  Boston,  several  years 
since.  An  exact  wax  figure  of  the  lady  with  the  'red 
eyes,'  belongs  to  a  group,  now  in  exhibition  at  the  New 
England  Museum.  About  the  same  period,  the  writer 
also  recollects  of  seeing  a  white  negress,  who  was  an  al- 
bino. Her  father  and  mother  were  of  the  jet  black  color, 
though  she  had  a  pale,  deadly  white  complexion.  The 
hair  of  both  these  albinos  was  silky  and  milk  white. 

THE    REASON    WHY    MANY    ANIMALS    SEE    IN    THE    DARK. 

Owls,  fishes,  cats,  bats,  &c,  instead  of  the  pigmentum 
nigrum,  have  a  silvery  paint  of  a  metallic  lustre,  where 
others  have  the  black  paint,  which  operates  like  a  mirror, 
in  reflecting  the  light  from  point  to  point,  within  the  eye, 
illuminating  it  till  its  concentration  excites  the  retina  to 
perceive.  When  viewing  a  cat's  eyes  in  the  remote  part 
of  a  dark  room,  there  are  certain  positions,  in  which  they 
are  seen  by  the  observer,  by  the  reflected  light  within 
themselves,  as  though  they  were  phosphorescent :  their 
brilliancy  is  very  peculiar.  Upon  the  principle  of  a  look- 
ing-glass behind  the  retina,  all  the  night-prowling  animals 
are  qualified  for  seeing  with  those  few  rays  of  light, 
which  the  constitution  of  their  eyes  is  formed  for  collect- 
ing in  the  dark.  By  daylight,  they  perceive  objects, 
as  man  does  in  the  dark,  viz.  indistinctly.  Nature  is 
remarkably  economical  in  the  use  of  matter  which  enters 
into  the  composition  of  animal  bodies.  If  a  man  be  kept 
a  long  time  in  a  perfectly  dark  room,  the  pigmentum 
nigrum  is  taken  away;  but  a  compensation  is  given  him, 
for  he  can  then  see  as  perfectly  in  the  dark,  as  he  could 
before  in  the  light.  On  the  other  hand,  the  paint. is  de- 
posited again  when  he  is  restored  to  the  light  of  day. 
This  point  has  been  decided  in  the  persons  of  state  pris- 
oners kept  in  the  dungeons  of  European  despots. 

Is  there  any  arrangement  in  the  eye,  and  what  is  it,  by 
which  animals  that  see  in  the  dark  are  enabled  to  make 
up  for  the  want  of  external  light  ?  When  we  consider 
the  metallic  lustre  of  the  tapetum,  which  in  many  animals 
occupies  a  great  part  of  trie  choroid  coat,  or  even  its 
whole  surface  ;  farther,  its  resemblance  to  a  concave 
mirror,  and  its  relation  to  the  light  that  penetrates  into 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  131 

the  interior  of  the  eye,  we  cannot  help  considering  it  as 
the  means  employed  for  this  purpose,  by  its  collecting 
the  light  and  illuminating,  by  its  reflection,  objects  lying 
in  the  axis  of  the  eye.  Prevost  objects  to  this  explana- 
tion, that  there  are  many  animals  whose  eyes  have  no 
tapetum,  although  they  conduct  themselves  as  if  they  saw 
in  the  dark.  This  is  actually  the  case.  The  tapetum 
occurs  in  carnivora,  ruminantia,  pachydermata,  cetacea, 
owls,  crocodiles,  snakes,  rays  and  sharks  :  it  is  wanting 
in  apes,  glires,  chiroptera,  hedgehogs  and  moles ;  in  birds, 
with  the  exception  of  owls,  and  in  osseous  fishes.  But  the 
gnawers  or  glires,  bats,  the  hedgehog  and  mole,  are  ani- 
mals that  obtain  their  food  more  by  night  than  during  the 
day  ;  and  many  of  them  conduct  themselves  in  the  deep- 
est darkness,  as  if  they  were  directed  by  the  sense  of 
sight.  But  this  objection  may  be  obviated",  by  remarking, 
that  it  is  probably  some  other  sense  than  that  of  vision, 
which  procures  for  many  of  these  animals  sensations  of 
external  objects  in  the  dark.  We  have  in  favor  of  this 
opinion,  not  only  the  experiments  of  Spallanzani  on  bats, 
from  which  it  appears  that,  after  these  creatures  were 
deprived  of  the  use  of  their  eyes,  they  conducted  them- 
selves as  if  they  still  possessed  the  power  of  vision,  but 
also  the  examples  of  species  of  that  family,  in  which  the 
eyes  are  so  imperfectly  developed,  or  lie  so  much  concealed 
behind  the  outer  skin,  that  they  are  of  little  or  no  use  to  the 
animal.  The  genera  that  see  in  the  dark,  have  undoubt- 
edly so  irritable  a  retina,  that  they  can  only  see  during  a 
very  feeble  light  ;  whereas  in  those  animals  whose  eyes 
are  organized  equally  for  daylight  and  nocturnal  dark- 
ness, the  retina  possesses  less  irritability.  Hence, 
although  these  are  without  a  tapetum,  it  does  not  follow 
that  this  organic  part  does  not  afford  a  mean  for  seeing 
during  a  feeble  light. 

The  tapetum  is  either  spread  over  the  whole  choroid, 
or  only  over  the  upper  half  of  it.  The  first  is  the  case 
with  the  cetacea,  owls,  and.  witlfthose  amphibia  and 
fishes  which  are  provided  with  this  shining  envelope  ;  the 
second  occurs  in  carnivorous  and  ruminating  animals,  it 
is  more  extended  in  the  ruminating  than  in  the  carnivo- 
rous tribes.  But  it  always  extends  so  far  as  to  encompass 
the  posterior  extremity  of  the  internal  occular  axis.  All 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


the  rays  of  light  from  external  objects  which  reach  it,  are 
united  on  it,  through  the  transparent  part  of  the  eye,  and 
it   again    reflects    back    the  whole  united  rays  towards 
the  lens.     This  latter  unites   them  into   a  single   cone, 
which   has  the  occular  axis  as   its  axis,  and   its  point  is 
directed  outwards.     The  very  convergent  rays  of  this 
cone   become  more  divergent   by  their  passage   from  the 
lens  into  the   aqueous   fluid,  and   from  this  into   air  or 
water.     Finally,  the  apex  of  this  cone  falls  into  the  point 
of  most  distinct  vision  ;  for  in  this  point  is  situated  the 
focus  of  all  the  rays  that  reach  from   the  interior  of  the 
eye  to  the  posterior  surface  of  the  lens.     The   cone   is 
complete  when  the  tapetum  is  spread  over  the  whole  of 
the  choroid  ;    but  the  upper  half  of  it  is  wanting,  when 
it  occupies  only  the  upper  hemisphere  of  the  coat.     The 
tapetum  is  confined  to  the  upper  half  of  the  choroid  in  all 
animals,  whose  residence  and  manner  of  life  are  of  such 
a  nature,  that  the  under  half  of  the  retina  is  immediately 
struck   by  bright  daylight,  and   for   this  simple  reason, 
because  the   animal    must   have    been    dazzled    by  the 
reflection  of  the  bright  light  from  the  under  half  of  the 
latter.     It  covers  the  whole  posterior  portion  of  the  inter- 
nal  eye  in  the  cetacea  and   owls,  many  amphibia,  rays, 
and  sharks,  because  these  animals  live  constantly  in  the 
water,  or   in   a   feebly  luminous  medium,  or   have  their 
place  of  residence  in  dark  corners,  or  go  in  quest  of  food 
during  the  night.     The  experiments  and  observations  of 
Prevost  and  Esser,  detailed  in  1826  and  1827,  show  that 
the  reflection  of  light  from  the  tapetum  is  the  cause  of 
the  luminou?ness  of  the  eyes,  observed  under  certain  cir- 
cumstances in  the  twilight,  in  cats,  dogs,  sheep,  and  in 
general  in  all  the  animals  having  a  tapetum.    But  whether 
or  not  a  phosphoric  light  sometimes   proceeds  from  the 
retina  or  choroid,  has  not  as  yet   been  fully  ascertained. 
There  are  many  examples  of  a  luminousness  in  the  dark 
having  been  observed  in  the  human  eye. 

THE  REASON  WHY  FISHES  CANNOT  SEE    IN  AIR  AS  WELL  AS 
IN    WATER. 

When  the  rays  of  light  pass  from  a  rarer  to  a  denser 
medium,  as  from  air  into  the  aqueous  humor  of  the  eye, 
they  are  refracted  towards  the  perpendicular.  Now  the 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  133 

fish  has  but  a  drop,  as  it  were,  of  aqueous  humor,  and, 
moreover,  the  light  arrives  at  its  eyes  through  the  whole 
body  of  water  above.  The  light  is  refracted  only  in  a 
small  degree  in  entering  its  eye,  because  the  humor  is  of 
the  same  density  of  the  fluid  through  which  the  light  is 
transmitted.  The  cornea  is  quite  flat ;  if  it  were  promi- 
nent, like  the  human  eye,  the  sphere  of  vision  would  be 
too  circumscribed  ;  —  but  by  giving  a  prominence  to  the 
whole,  and  placing  the  crystalline  lens  in  the  fore  part 
of  the  eye,  they  have  a  long  diameter,  —  and  with  the 
provision  of  a  large  pupil,  are  completely  fitted  to  see  in 
the  element  in  which  they  are  destined  to  live.  With 
an  eye  of  this  description,  they  must  necessarily  see  in 
air,  as  other  animals  see  in  water. 

Those  animals  whose  eyes  are  organized  for  seeing  in 
water,  see  but  indifferently  in  air.  Hence,  in  those  cases 
where  the  habits  of  the  animal  require  it  to  see  in  both 
media,  it  is  provided  with  two  sets  of  eyes,  or  with  eyes 
accommodated  for  seeing  in  each  element.  Thus  the 
Gyrinus  natator,  an  insect  which  generally  swims  on  the 
surface  of  water,  but  half  submerged,  is  provided  on  each 
side  with  two  eyes,  one  pair  situated  on  the  crown  of  the 
head,  for  seeing  in  the  air,  and  another  pair  under  the 
head,  for  seeing  in  the  water.  It  is  also  probable  that 
the  fish  named  Cobitis  anableps,  which  has  in  each  eye 
an  upper  and  under  cornea  of  different  curvatures,  and 
for  each  cornea  a  particular  anterior  surface  of  the  lens, 
is  capable  of  seeing  in  water  with  the  one  half  of  the  eye, 
and  in  air  with  the  other  half.  Thus  Scemmering  found 
in  this  fish,  the  semi-diameter  of  the  upper  cornea — 1,0; 
the  under  1 ,2  ;  the  two  curvatures  of  the  upper  part  of 
the  lens — 0,5 ;  and  the  two  curvatures  of  the  under  part 
of  it  —  0,2  Paris  lines.  It  cannot  be  denied,  that,  in 
general,  land  animals  can  see  under  water,  and  aquatic 
animals  in  air ;  even  man  sees  under  water,  although  the 
contrary  has  been  maintained.  It  is  not,  however,  pos- 
sible, that  the  same  eye  is  ever  so  organized  as  to  see 
equally  well  in  both  elements.  Land  animals  always  see 
indifferently  in  water,  and  aquatic  animals  imperfectly  in 
air.  The  one  is  long-sighted  in  water,  and  the  other 
short-sighted  in  air.  An  animal  in  which  the  eye  is 
VOL.  i NO  v.  12 


134  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


adapted  for  seeing  equally  well  in  air  and  water,  can  have 
but  imperfect  vision  in  either.  These  conclusions  are  in 
conformity  with  what  is  known  of  the  power  of  vision  in 
those  animals  that  live  partly  on  the  land  and  partly  in 
the  water.  The  seal  (phoca)  is  one  of  those  animals  that 
live  in  both  elements.  But  the  seal  has  but  imperfect 
vision  in  the  air.  Rosenthal  in  his  memoir  on  the  organs 
of  the  senses  of  seals,  says,  '  we  have  convinced  ourselves 
by  careful  observation  with  living  seals,  of  the  species 
Phoca  Grypus  of  Faber,  that  the  animal  is  always  short- 
sighted in  the  air  ;  for  when  we  held  before  it  fish  and 
other  bodies,  as  pieces  of  wood  or  stones,  it  did  not  dis- 
tinguish them  accurately,  until  they  were  brought  so 
near,  that  the  organ  of  smell  could  be  called  into  activity. 
I  have  the  most  satisfactory  evidence  of  the  short-sighted- 
ness of  seals,  from  a  series  of  experiments  and  observa- 
tions, made  in  Boston  harbor.  My  duties  requiring  me 
to  be  floating  in  a  boat,  from  vessel  to  vessel,  many 
months  of  the  year,  I  have  been  so  often  accompanied  by 
seals,  alongside  and  astern,  as  to  establish  the  fact,  that 
they  can  see  but  a  few  yards  in  the  air,  and  then  very 
obscurely.  Scoresby  remarks,  '  Whales  are  observed  to 
discover  one  another,  in  clear  water,  when  under  the 
surface,  at  an  amazing  distance.  When  at  the  surface, 
however,  they  do  not  see  far.'  Scoresby'1  s  Arctic  Regions, 
vol.  i.  p.  456.  Faber,  in  his  very  interesting  work  on 
the  habits  and  manners  of  birds  that  inhabit  high  north- 
ern latitudes,  remarks  that  Divers  (Colymbus)  do  not  see 
so  well  above  water  as  Grebes  (Podiceps,)  but  better 
under  water,  because  it  is  there  they  obtain  their  food. 

It  also  appears,  that  birds  which  see  well  in  one  ele- 
ment, do  not  see  so  welt  in  the  other.  Faber  proposes 
the  question,  '  Is  it  the  case  that  divers,  when  under 
water,  draw  their  nictitating  membrane  over  the  eye,  as 
they  do  when  looking  towards  the  sun,  in  order  to  pre- 
vent the  contact  of  the  water  ?'  It  would  appear,  from 
the  observations  of  Treviranus,  from  whose  excellent 
work,  the  observations  on  vision  we  are  now  detailing 
are  principally  extracted,  that,  by  drawing  the  nictitating 
membrane  over  the  eye,  divers,  and  all  other  land  animals 
which  seek  their  food  under  water,  are  enabled,  not  only 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  135 

to  prevent  the  immediate  action  of  the  water  on  the  eye, 
but  also  to  discover  their  prey.  But  as  the  light  loses 
more  of  its  power  on  passing  through  water,  than  in 
passing  through  air,  and  is  still  more  weakened  in  its 
progress  through  the  nictitating  membrane,  it  follows 
that  owing  to  this  membrane,  vision  must  be  less  distinct 
under  the  water  than  in  the  air. 

THE    REASON    WHY    MAN    CANNOT    SEE    UNDER    WATER. 

A  man  under  water,  sees  objects  as  a  very  aged  person 
sees  through  a  concave  glass,  placed  close  to  the  eye. 
The  fish  is  long-sighted  under  water  and  man  is  short- 
sighted. If  he  uses  spectacles,  whose  convexity  is  just 
double  the  convexity  —  or  equal  in  convexity  on  both 
sides  to  the  cornea  of  his  own  eye,  he  will  see  under 
water.  The  necessity  of  this  is  obvious ;  the  aqueous 
humor  is  of  the  same  density  with  the  water,  and  there 
cannot,  therefore,  be  any  refraction  of  the  rays  in  passing 
from  the  water  into  the  land-seeing  eye. 

Euclid  and  other  distinguished  ancients,  contended, 
and,  indeed,  supposed  that  vision  was  occasioned  by  the 
emission  of  rays  from  the  eye  to  the  object.  He  thought 
it  more  natural  to  suppose  that  an  animate  substance 
gave  an  emination,  than  that  the  inanimate  body  did.  In 
1560,  the  opinion  that  the  rays  entered  the  eye,  was 
established.  Kepler,  in  1600,  snowed,  geometrically,  how 
the  rays  were  refracted  through  all  the  humors,  so  as  to 
form  a  distinct  picture  on  the  retina ;  and  he  also  demon- 
strated the  effect  of  glasses  on  the  eyes. 

IN    WHAT    MANNER    DOES    THE  EYE  ADAPT    ITSELF  TO  THE 
DISTANCE  OP   OBJECTS  1 

No  one  has  satisfactorily  answered  this  question.  One 
philosopher  supposes  the  eye  is  at  rest,  when  we  examine 
a  distant  object,  as  a  mountain,  the  spire  of  a  church,  or 
a  landscape,  but,  that  in  the  act  of  seeing  near  objects, 
there  is  an  effort.  It  has  been  supposed  that  this  effort 
is  the  action  of  the  straight  or  recti  muscles,  exhibited  in 
the  first  plan  of  the  cordage  of  the  eye,  compressing  the 
globe,  so  equally,  as  to  elongate  the  eye,  and  lengthen 
the  axis,  so  much,  as  to  favor  the  union  of  the  pencils  of 


136  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

rays  on  the  sensible  retina.  This  could  not  take  place  in 
many  aquatic  anmials,  in  whose  eyes  the  sclerotica  is 
perfect  bone.  Another  opinion  is,  that  the  eye  is  at  rest 
in  looking  at  near  objects,  and  laboring,  when  viewing 
things  at  a  distance.  One  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that 
the  iris  contracts,  and  so  draws  the  circular  margin  of 
the  cornea,  towards  the  pupil,  as  to  make  it  more*  or  less 
convex,  according  to  circumstances.  A  great  variety  of 
experiments  have  been  instituted,  to  determine,  accu- 
rately, whether  there  really  is  any  change  made  in  the 
length  of  the  axis  of  the  eyeball  or  not,  but  none  of  them 
can  be  certainly  relied  upon.  A  favorite  .theory  has  had 
its  advocates,  that  the  crystalline  lens  has  an  inherent 
power  of  altering  its  degree  of  convexity,  and  thus  ac- 
commodates the  eye  to  all  distances.  Of  all  the  absurd 
hypotheses  on  the  subject  under  consideration,  this  is  de- 
cidedly tha  most  objectionable,  in  the  estimation  of  an 
anatomist.  The  truth  is,  an  action  takes  place  in  the 
eye,  in  adapting  itself  to  near  and  distant  objects,  which 
depends  on  that  vital  property  of  a  living  system  which 
no  theory  can  reach,  and  which  the  deductions  of  human 
philosophy  can  never  with  certainty  explain. 

Having  now  completed  this  very  brief  and  imperfect 
'sketch,  of  the  mechanism  and  philosophy  of  the  eye, 
condensed  from  manuscript  observations,  which  from  the 
peculiar  nature  of  my  studies,  have  been  continually 
accumulating,  I  leave  it  with  regret,  conscious  of  its 
defects, —  although  a  hope  is  entertained  that  it  will 
serve  to  excite  an  additional  interest  in  this  department 
of  science,  and  thus  accomplish  one  of  the  principal 
designs  of  the  series  to  which  it  belongs. 


BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED  BY  CARTER,  HENDEE  &  BABCOCK, 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 


BOSTON     CLASSIC     PRESS 1 


%*  TERMS — 24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  FIFTY 

CENTS. 


SCIENTIFIC    TRA.CTS. 

NUMBER   VI. 


HEAT. 

INTRODUCTION. 

IF  the  indispensable  utility  of  any  branch  of  science, 
constitutes  a  sufficient  reason  for  its  universal  dissemina- 
tion among  the  great  mass  of  our  people,  a  knowledge  of 
the  nature  and  effects  of  heat,  would  seem  to  claim  a  pre- 
eminence over  all  the  various  branches,  which  in  the  phi- 
lanthropic spirit  of  the  day,  it  is  deemed  highly  necessary 
to  disseminate  among  our  farmers,  mechanics,  and  la- 
borers, as  essential  to  their  comfort,  happiness  and  suc- 
cess in  their  various  callings. 

Heat  animates,  vivifies,  and  adorns  the  animal  part  of 
creation  ;  it  brings  forth,  embellishes,  and  matures  the 
vegetable  world  ;  it  contributes  in  a  very  great  degree  to 
the  domestic  comforts  of  man  —  but  few  of  the  arts  and 
trades  are  carried  on  without  the  aid  of  this  important 
agent.  It  is  by  the  agency  of  heat,  that  stone  and  brick 
are  prepared  for  the  builder's  hand ;  the  ship  cannot  be 
built  without  its  assistance  ;  and  whether  she  perform  her 
distant  journeys  by  the  aid  of  steam  or  wind,  both  are  pro- 
duced by  the  same  cause.  In  fine,  there  is  no  occupation 
of  man,  in  which  the  laws  of  heat  may  not  enlighten  and 
aid  him  in  the  prosecution  of  his  labors. 

All  mankind  receive  heat  and  light  from  the  sun,  all 
feel  the  genial  influence  of  these  blessings ;  and  yet  how 
few  understand  the  peculiar  laws  by  which  the  effects  are 
produced.  The  laws  and  effects  of  heat  are  less  studied 
than  many  other  more  difficult  branches  of  science ;  and 
yet  what  wonderful  effects  have  been  produced  on  the 
civilization  of  the  human  race  by  the  elucidation  and 
application  of  its  laws.  The  steam  engine  is  a  proud 
monument  of  the  triumph  of  learning  and  research  over 

VOL,  i, — NO.  vi.  13 


138  BEAT. 

^ 

ignorance.  The  invention  of  this  highly  useful  ad- 
dition to  the  power  of  man,  is  owing  entirely  to  the  eluci- 
dation of  the  laws  and  effects  of  this  principle. 

Most  men  are  familiar  with  some  of  the_most  common 
effects  of  heat,  as  they  are  exhibited  in  the  course  of  every 
day  life;  and  yet  there  is  but  a  small  number  who  ex- 
tend their  inquiries  beyond  this  —  and  a  still  less  number 
who  inquire  into  the  why  and  wherefore,  of  these  appa- 
rently simple  effects.  Believing,  therefore,  that  it  is  high- 
ly useful  to  men  to  understand  and  comprehend  what  they 
have  learned  by  experience ;  knowing  that  such  knowledge 
is  highly  pleasing,  particularly  to  such  as  are  conscious 
of  possessing  the  rich  gift  of  an  inquiring  mind,  we 
propose  to  explain  in  a  concise  and  elementary  manner, 
the  effects  and  properties  of  heat,  together  with  some  of 
its  most  important  applications  in  the  arts  of  life. 

EFFECTS    OF    HEAT. 

One  of  the  first,  and  most  common  effects  of  heat  upon 
all  bodies,  whether  solids,  fluids  or  airs,  is  to  expand 
them,  which  may  be  shown  by  the  following 

Experiment.  —  Fit  a  rod  of  iron  to  a  hole  in  some 
metallic  plate  ;  if  it  exactly  fits  when  cold,  when  heated 
it  will  be  so  enlarged  as  not  to  enter  it. 

The  same  will  be  found  to  be  the  case  with  almost  all 
solid  bodies.  But  all  solids  do  not  expand  equally  by  the 
same  heat.  Lead  expands  more  than  any  other  solid, 
while  glass  expands  the  least.  Numerous  experiments 
have  been  made  by  different  philosophers,  on  the  expan- 
sion of  solid  bodies  by  heat,  from  which  the  following 
conclusions  are  derived. 

A  metal  that  has  been  condensed  by  hammering  or 
wire-drawing,  expands  more  than  when  in  a  looser  state  ; 
and  those  metals  which  melt  the  easiest,  generally  expand 
the  most. 

Advantage  is  taken  of  this  property  of  solids,  in  many 
of  the  arts  and  trades.  Wheels  are  tired  with  iron  which, 
when  cold,  is  a  little  smaller  than  the  wheel ;  and  by  being 
heated  it  expands,  and  is  thus  placed  upon  the  wheel, 
after  which  it  contracts  by  cooling,  and  thus  binds  all  the 
parts  of  the  wheel  firmly  together.  Large  casks  and 
butts  for  brewers,  &c.,  are  rendered  tight  and  secure  by 
placing  hot  iron  or  copper  hoops  upon  them  which,  by 


HEAT.  139 

contraction  on  cooling,  bind  the  staves  together.  Ad- 
vantage is  also  taken  of  this  property,  in  the  construction 
of  nice  clocks  and  watches.  As  the  pendulums  of  clocks 
and  the  balance-wheels  of  watches,  are  made  of  metal 
which  expands  by  heat,  and  contracts  by  cold,  the  length 
of  them  is  altered  by  heat,  and  this  of  course  alters  the 
rate  of  going:  if  a  pendulum  rod  which  vibrates  seconds 
be  lengthened  one  hundredth  part  of  an  inch,  the  clock 
will  lose  ten  seconds  in  twentyfour  hours,  and  if  it  be 
shortened,  it  will  cause  the  clock  to  go  proportionably 
faster.  Several  ingenious  contrivances  have  been  found 
out  for  remedying  these  defects.  The  most  common  of 
which  is,  what  is  called  the  gridiron  pendulum,  which  is 
formed  of  five  bars,  three  of  steel  and  two  of  a  compound 
of  zinc  and  silver ;  these  are  so  arranged  that  the  expan- 
sion of  the  steel  is  counteracted  by  the  expansion  of  the 
zinc  and  silver,  by  which  the  pendulum  is  always  of  the 
same  length.  The  balance-wheels  of  watches  are  con- 
structed upon  the  same  principles. 

The  great  force  with  which  metals  expand  when  heat- 
ed, was  applied  some  years  since  in  a  singular  and  novel 
manner  at  Paris.  The  two  side  walls  of  a  building,  which 
were  of  stone,  having  been  pressed  out  by  the  weight  of 
the  floors  and  roof,  several  holes  were  made  in  the  walls 
opposite  to  each  other  ;  through  these,  strong  bars  of  iron 
were  placed,  their  ends  projecting  outside  of  the  walls, 
large  plates  of  iron  were  screwed  on  to  them.  The  bars 
were  then  heated,  which  of  course  lengthened  them,  by 
which  the  large  plates  could  be  advanced,  and  when 
the  bars  cooled,  the  walls  were  drawn  together.  The 
same  process  being  repeated  several  times,  the  walls  were 
drawn  to  their  original  position. 

Liquids  are  expanded  more  by  heat  than  solids,  and 
airs  more  than  liquids.  The  expansion  of  liquids  by 
heat,  is  easily  shown  by  experiment.  Place  a  quantity  of 
water  in  a  common  Florence  oil  flask,  sufficient  to  fill  it 
to  the  neck ;  mark  the  point  at  which  it  stands  when 
cold,  then  apply  heat;  in  a  short  time  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  water  is  above  the  mark.  The  same  will  apply  to 
almost  all  liquids. 

Those  liquids  expand  most  by  the  addition  of  a  cer- 
tain quantity  of  heat,  which  boil  with  the  least  heat. 
Thus  mercury  (quicksilver,)  expands  less  than  water,  by 


140  HEAT. 

equal  additions  of  heat ;  and  water  boils  with  less  heat 
than  mercury  ;  and  for  the  same  reason,  alcohol  (spirits 
of  wine)  expands  more  than  water. 

The  nearer  a  liquid  is  to  boiling,  the  more  it  expands, 
and  of  course,  the  further  it  is  from  boiling,  the  less  it 
expands  by  the  addition' of  a  certain  quantity  of  heat. 
The  expansion  of  liquids  therefore,  does  not  depend  on 
their  density,  but  upon  the  quantity  of  heal  necessary  to 
make  them  boil ;  and  no  reason  can  be  given  why  differ- 
ent liquids  require  different  degrees  of  heat  to  make  them 
boil. 

The  expansion  of  liquids  by  heat,  and  contraction  by 
cold,  has  furnished  us  with  the  means  of  measuring  the 
relative  heat  or  temperature  of  all  other  bodies.  This 
is  done  with  an  instrument  called  a  Thermometer.  It  is 
almost  unnecessary  for  us  to  describe  a  Thermometer.  It 
consists  essentially  of  a  glass  tube,  with  a  bulb  or  hollow 
ball  at  one  end,  which  is  filled  with  mercury  which,  after 
the  air  has  been  expelled  by  making  the  mercury  boil,  is 
sealed  up  air  tight.  When  this  instrument  is  exposed  to 
heat,  the  mercury  expands,  and  of  course,  rises  in  the 
tube  ;  and  when  exposed  to  cold,  the  contrary  takes  place. 
To  this  tube  a  scale  is  attached  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
parison ;  this  scale  is  graduated  and  marked,  by  plunging 
the  tube  and  bulb  into  melting  ice ;  the  point  at  which 
the  mercury  then  stands,  is  called  the  freezing  point  of 
water.  It  is  then  plunged  into  boiling  water,  the  point 
at  which  the  mercury  stands  is  called  the  boiling  point 
of  water.  However  often  we  perform  these  operations 
we  shall  find  that  the  mercury  will  always  stand  at  the 
same  point ;  hence  we  learn,  that  snow  or  ice  always  be- 
gins to  melt  at  the  same  temperature,  and  that  water  boils 
always  at  the  same  degree  of  heat.  Mercury  is  used  for 
thermometers,  because  it  expands  more  equally  than  any 
other  liquid,  owing  to  the  great  distance  between  its  freez- 
ing and  boiling  points ;  quicksilver  boils  at  660  °  of 
Fahrenheit,  and  freezes  at  40°  below  zero  ;  so  that  there 
is  700°  between  the  two  points. 

Theie  are  many  kinds  of  thermometers,  which  derive 
their  names  from  their  inventors.  Thus  Fahrenheit's* 
thermometer,  which  is  used  in  Britain  and  her  posses- 

•  Wherever,  the  degrees  of  heat  are  mentioned  in  this  tract,  it 
is  intended  to  refer  to  Fahrenheit's  scale. 


HEAT  141 

sions,  Holland,  and  the  United  States,  has  its  zero  placed 
at  32°  below  the  freezing  point  of  water,  and  the  boiling 
point  of  water  at  212°  ;  of  course,  the  distance  between 
the  freezing  and  boiling  points,  is  divided  into  180  parts. 
Celsius'  thermometer,  otherwise  called  the  Centigrade 
thermometer,  is  used  in  Sweden  and  France  ;  and  the 
space  between  the  freezing  and  boiling  points  is  divided 
into  100  ° ;  the  freezing  point  of  water  is  marked  0. 
Reaumer's,  or  in  truth,  Deluc's  thermometer,  which  was 
formerly  used  in  France,  has  its  freezing  point  marked  0, 
and  boiling  point  80  ° .  De  Lisle's  thermometer  is  used 
in  Russia,  and  has  its  space  between  the  freezing  and 
boiling  points  divided  into  150  parts,  the  zero  being 
placed  at  the  boiling  point,  and  150  at  the  freezing  point. 
All  gaseous  bodies  are  expanded  by  heat,  as  air,  car- 
bonic acid  gas,  (fixed  air,  dead  air,)  which  may  be  slioun 
by  the  following 

Experiment.  —  Take  a  glass  tube  with  a  bulb  at  one 
end  and  open  at  the  other,  plunge  the  open  end  into 
water,  then  apply  the  heat  of  a  lamp  to  the  bulb  ;  bubbles 
will  be  produced  from  the  end  under  the  water,  which 
is  owing  to  the  escape  of  air  from  the  tube ;  of  course 
the  air  has  been  expanded  by  the  heat. 

The  expansion  of  gaseous  bodies  differs  essentially 
from  that  of  solids  or  liquids,  as  they  all  undergo  the 
same  expansion  by  the  same  additions  of  heat.  The 
steam  of  water  expands  just  as  much  as  air,  when  the 
same  addition  of  heat  is  made.  Air  by  being  heated 
from  32°  to  212° ,  increases  more  than  one  third  in  bulk. 
This  difference  in  the  expansion  of  different  bodies, 
arises  from  the  difference  in  the  cohesive  force  by  which 
their  particles  are  bound  together — in  solids  the  force 
of  cohesion  is  great  —  in  liquids  it  is  less,  and  in  gaseous 
bodies  it  is  nothing.  Therefore,  in  the  expansion  of 
bodies  by  heat,  there  is  more  force  to  be  overcome  in 
solids  than  in  liquids ;  more  in  water  than  in  air  ;  con- 
sequently air  expands  more  than  any  solid  or  liquid  body. 
The  expansive  force  of  steam  is  applied  to  the  use  of 
man,  in. that  magnificent  production  of  human  ingenuity, 
the  Steam  Engine,  a  description  of  which  would  be 
out  of  place  in  this  treatise. 

We  have  already  stated,  that  there  are  a  few  excep- 

VOL.    I. NO.  VI.  13* 


142  HEAT. 

tions  to  the  expansion  of  bodies  by  heat ;  a  few  bodies 
expand  when  at  a  certain  temperature,  either  by  an 
increase  or  decrease  of  heat. 

Water  is  the  most  singular  and  important  instance  of 
this  effect :  this  liquid  decreases  in  bulk  until  it  has  cool- 
ed to  a  certain  point,  and  then  increases  just  as  if  heat 
were  applied.  The  temperature  at  which  water  has  the 
greatest  density,  is  at  about  40°  of  Fahrenheit,  at  which 
point  it  expands  either  by  heat  or  cold. 

The  expansive  force  of  water  in  the  act  of  freezing,  is 
practically  known  to  almost  every  person  in  our  climate. 
Water  left  in  earthen  or  glass  vessels,  during  cold  wea- 
ther, expands  in  freezing,  and  breaks  the  vessel.  Pipes 
for  conducting  water  are  often  burst,  by  water  freezing 
in  them.  The  pavement  stones  of  our  streets  are  often 
observed  during  fall  and  winter  to  be  raised  out  of  their 
places,  which  is  caused  by  the  freezing  of  the  water  be- 
neath them.  The  earth  around  rocks  and  stones  is  often 
observed  to  be  separated  from  them,  which  is  frequently 
supposed  to  arise  from  the  rocks  and  stones  sinking, 
which,  in  truth,  is  caused  by  the  water  in  the  earth,  which 
freezes  and  expands,  while  the  rock  does  not  expand, 
but  diminishes  in  a  small  degree  only.  Rocks  are  rent 
asunder,  trees  are  split  by  this  property  of  water.  This 
agency  of  water  is  a  striking  instance  of  the  Divine  good- 
ness, in  causing  rocks  and  soils  to  moulder  to  powder, 
thereby  fitting  them  well  for  the  purposes  of  the  hus- 
bandman. 

If  it  were  not  for  this  property  of  water,  our  rivers  and 
brooks  would  in  the  course  of  our  winters,  become  en- 
tirely solid,  which  of  course,  would  destroy  their  innu- 
merable inhabitants ;  the  seas  and  oceans  of  the  polar  re- 
gions of  the  earth  woukl  become  one  entire  mass  of  ice, 
because  the  ice  as  soon  as  formed  on  the  surface,  would 
sink  to  the  bottom,  and  another  layer  would  be  formed, 
and  sink  also ;  in  this  way  the  whole  would  be  frozen. 

The  writer  of  this  tract  has  burst  an  iron  bomb  shell, 
7  inches  in  diameter  and  nearly  1  inch  thick,  by  the 
freezing  of  water.  Some  Venetian  philosophers  burst  a 
brass  globe  one  inch  in  diameter  by  freezing  water  in  it, 
which  it  was  calculated,  was  equal  to  a  force  of  27,720 
pounds. 

The  expansion  of  water  in  the  act  of  freezing,  is  sup- 


HEAT.  143 

posed  to  be  owing  to  the  tendency  which  water  has  in 
becoming  solid,  to  arrange  its  particles  in  one  determinate 
manner,  so  as  to  form  prismatic  crystals. 

Some  of  the  metals  have  the  property,  when  in  a  liquid 
or  melted  state,  of  expanding  when  they  become  solid ; 
these  are  cast-iron,  bismuth,  and  antimony.  Hence 
the  use  of  cast-iron  in  making  castings  of  a  perfect 
shape,  because  the  iron  in  the  act  of  cooling,  expands 
and  completely  fills  the  mould.  Hence  likewise,  the  use 
of  antimony  in  the  composition  of  types.  It  should, be 
remembered  however,  that  these  bodies  do  not  constitute 
an  exception  to  the  law  of  expansion  by  heat,  because 
the  expansion  in  the  above  metals  is  owing  to  the  change 
of  state,  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid,  that  is,  to  crystallization. 
All  bodies  do  not,  however,  expand.;  on  changing  their 
state  from  a  liquid  to  a  solid.  When  liquids  become  sol- 
ids they  either  form  crystals  or  an  irregular  mass,  in 
which  there  is  no  regular  arrangement.  In  the  former 
case,  expansion  takes  place,  in  the  latter  contraction. 
Water  and  the  different  kinds  of  salts  are  instances  of 
the  former  ;  oils  and  tallow  are  examples  of  the  latter. 

Nearly  all  solid  bodies  may,  by  heat,  be  converted  into 
liquids,  and  all  liquids  may  be  converted  into  solids  by  a 
sufficient  degree  of  cold.  Again,  all  liquids  may  be  con- 
verted into  vapor  or  elastic  fluids,  by  heat ;  and  a  great 
number  of  elastic  fluids  may,  by  cold,  be  condensed  into 
liquids :  hence  the  state  of  a  body  depends  essentially 
upon  the  temperature  in  which  it  is  placed. 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  temperature  at  which 
a  number  of  bodies  melt. 


Cast  Iron 

-      20577°  of  Fahrenheit. 

Plate  Glass   -      - 

-      17197 

Fine  Gold     -     - 

5237 

Fine  Silver   -     - 

4717 

Lead 

594 

Bees'  Wax     -     - 

142 

Spermaceti    -     - 

133 

Tallow           -     - 

92 

Water  freezes  at  32  ° 
ular  process,  be  cooled 

,  yet  it  may  by  care  and  a  partic- 
down  to  22°,  without  becoming 

144  HEAT. 

ice.     When  water  is  thus  cooled  down,  the  least  agita- 
tion causes  it  to  become  ice  instantaneously. 

Any  kind  of  salt  dissolved  in  water,  lowers  its  freezing 
point.  Hence,  sea  water  does  not  freeze  so  soon  as  fresh 
water. 

OF    THE    CAUSE    OP    HEAT. 

There  are  many  natural  agencies,  the  causes  of 
which  remain  unknown  at  the  present  day,  and  probably 
always  will.  Learned  men  have  been  unremiting  in 
their  investigations  for  ages,  to  discover  the  hidden 
causes  of  natural  phenomena,  but  in  many  cases 
without  effect,  among  which  is  the  cause  of  heat. 
Philosophers  and  learned  men  have,  as  yet,  been  unable 
to  determine  whether  heat  is  caused  by  a  peculiar  subtile 
fluid  which  enters  into,  and  is  expelled  from  bodies,  and 
thus  produces  the  sensation  of  heat  or  cold  ;  or  whether 
the  cause  is  owing  to  a  motion  of  the  particles  of  the 
body,  vibratory  or  rotatory.  There  have  been  numerous 
arguments  adduced  in  support  of  both  suppositions,  all 
of  which,  however,  are  inconclusive ;  and  as  our  object  is 
rather  to  explain  the  laws  and  effects  of  heat,  than  to  deal 
with  ingenious  theories,  we  shall  omit  any  detailed  account 
of  the  arguments  and  experiments  in  favor  of  either. 

OF    THE    MOTION    OF    HEAT. 

When  we  hold  our  hand  near  a  piece  of  hot  iron  we 
feel  the  sensation  of  heat,  which  is  caused  by  the  heat  of 
the  iron  flying  off  in  all  directions,  in  the  same  manner 
as  sparks  fly  from  heated  iron  when  hammered  upon  the 
anvil.  This  peculiar  motion  of  heat  is  called  radiation. 

When  we  hold  a  piece  of  iron  with  one  end  of  it  in  the 
fire,  and  the  other  in  the  hand,  that  part  of  the  iron  which 
is  in  the  hand  will  in  time  become  hot ;  which  is  in 
consequence  of  the  heat  being  conducted  through  the 
iron,  from  one  end  to  the  other  :  this  property  of  heat  is 
called  conduction. 

Radiation.  —  Every  person  must  have  observed  that 
when  a  hot  body  is  exposed  to  the  air,  that  it  cools  in  a 
short  time,  and  that  bodies  do  not  cool  in  the  same  time ; 
now  is  this  difference  owing  to  the  form  or  dimensions  of 
the  body  ?  or  the  nature  or  color  of  its  surface  1  the 
answers  to  these  questions  lead  to  some  highly  important 
practical  results. 


HEAT.  145 

Experiment.  —  Take  two  tin  or  Brittania  tumblers,  and 
cover  the  outside  of  one  of  them  with  lamp-black,  fill 
them  both  with  boiling  hot  water,  and  place  a  thermome- 
ter in  each ;  it  will  be  seen  that  the  water  in  the  coated 
tumbler  will  cool  to  the  temperature  of  the  room  in  about 
one  half  of  the  time  required  to  cool  that  in  the  bright 
one.  The  same  effect  will  be  observed  whatever  be  the 
nature  of  the  metallic  bodies,  whether  the  tumblers  be 
iron  or  silver,  provided  their  surfaces  have  the  same  polish 
as  the  tin,  and  coated  in  the  same  manner. 

The  metals  radiate  heat  less  than  any  other  substances. 
Glass  radiates  7^  times  more  heat  than  polished  tin. 

Mr  Leslie  found  that  the  surface  of  a  body  produced 
the  greatest  effect  upon  radiation  when  the  air  was  still ; 
and  that  in  a  strong  wind  the  polished  and  coated 
vessels  filled  with  hot  water  cooled  in  nearly  the  same 
time.  This  proves  that  the  lamp-black  does  not  conduct 
the  heat  off,  but  radiates  it.  The  shape  of  a  vessel  has 
no  effect  upon  the  radiating  power  of  a  body,  except  that 
the  greater  the  surface  with  the  same  solid  contents,  the 
greater  the  radiation. 

The  color  has  but  a  slight  effect  upon  radiation.  If 
instead  of  coating  the  tumbler  with  lamp-black,  we  cover 
it  with  white  paper,  nearly  the  same  effect  is  produced  — 
it  therefore  depends  mainly  upon  the  nature  of  the  surface. 

The  following  substances  radiate  heat  in  the  order  in 
which  they  are  placed.  Lamp-black — writing  paper — 
glass — tarnished  lead — bright  lead — polished  iron — tin 
plate — silver — gold — copper — polished  brass. 

Bright  metallic  bodies  cool  the  slowest ;  culinary  uten- 
sils, therefore,  which  are  required  to  keep  whatever  is  in 
them  hot,  should  be  of  metal,  with  bright  clean  surfaces. 
For  the  same  reason,  pipes,  which  are  used  to  conduct 
heat  from  a  furnace  to  an  apartment,  should  be  made  of 
bright  metal.  Stove  pipes  and  others,  which  are  used 
to  heat  apartments  by  distributing  the  heat,  should  be 
covered  with  lamp-black,  or  some  other  similar  substance, 
which  will  cause  them  to  radiate  more  heat.  And  for 
the  same  reasons,  such  vessels  as  are  intended  to  receive 
heat,  should  be  black,  as  they  heat  much  sooner  than 
they  would  if  bright;  of  course,  such  culinary  vessels 
should  not  be  scoured  on  the  outside,  where  the  beat 
comes  to  them.  Heat  is  reflected  in  the  same  manner  as 


146 


light,  having  the  angle  of  incidence  equal  to  the  angle 
of  reflection;  that  is,  if  heat  strike  a  surface,  it  flies  off 
from  it  at  the  same  inclination  with  which  it  struck  it. 

Experiment.  —  Take  two  common  metallic  lamp  reflec- 
tors, place  them  a  short  distance  apart,  with  a  hot  iron 
ball  in  the  focus  of  one,  and  a  thermometer  in  the  focus 
of  the  other ;  the  thermometer  will  immediately  begin  to 
rise,  in  consequence  of  the  heat  from  the  ball  being 
radiated  to  its  reflector,  from  whence  it  is  thrown  to  the 
other  reflector,  and  from  thence  it  is  reflected  to  its  focus, 
in  which  the  thermometer  is  placed. 

If  a  pane  of  glass  be  held  between  the  reflectors,  the 
thermometer  does  not  rise  ;  this  proves  that  the  heat 
does  not  proceed  directly  from  the  ball  to  the  thermometer, 
which  is  further  shown  by  removing  the  reflector  nearest 
to  the  ball,  as  the  thermometer  will  then  fall. 

From  numerous  experiments,  it  has  been  shown, 
that  those  surfaces  which  radiate  heat  best,  are  the 
worst  reflectors ;  while  those  which  radiate  least,  are 
the  best  reflectors ;  metals,  consequently,  are  the  best 
reflectors,  and  when  polished  better  than  when  tar- 
nished. This  is  the  reason  that  brass  andirons,  which 
are  very  near  the  fire,  are  but  little  heated  ;  because  brass 
is  one  of  the  poorest  radiators,  and  one  of  the  best  reflec- 
tors. Advantage  is  taken  of  this  property,  in  the  culinary 
operation  of  roasting  with  a  tin  kitchen,  where  the  heat  is 
reflected  upon  the  spit. 

Radiation  and  reflection  do  not  take  place  under 
water.  Radiation  is  considerably  retarded  by  interposing 
a  screen  before  the  hot  body;  a  piece  of  pine  board,  one 
inch  thick,  is  not  so  effectual  in  stopping  radiating  heat 
as  apiece  of  gold  leaf  -^fam  part  of  an  inch  thick.  Those 
substances  which  radiate  best,  intercept  the  least  of 
it,  and  vice  versa.  Hence,  those  substances  which 
absorb  the  least  heat,  are  the  best  interceptors  of  it. 
Therefore,  ladies'  screens  should  not  be  made  of  paper,  or 
similar  substances,  but  of  some  bright  metallic  substance. 
Fine  wire,  polished,  and  woven  fine,  would  stop  heat 
more  effectually  than  paper. 

Conduction. — If  we  take  several  pieces  of  different 
substances,  such  as  silver,  copper,  iron,  lead,  and  glass, 
<jfjthe  same  size,  and  place  a  coat  of  wax  upon  one  end 
ofeach,  then  place  the  other  ends  in  the  same  heat,  it 


HEAT.  147 

will  be  perceived  that  the  wax  does  not  begin  to  melt  on 
them  all  at  the  same  time.  That  on  the  silver  will 
melt  first,  and  that  on  the  glass  last.  Therefore,  some 
bodies  heat  sooner  than  others.  When  bodies  become 
hot  in  this  manner,  it  is  said  to  be  conducted  through 
them. 

All  solid  bodies  are  conductors  of  heat.  The  metals 
are  the  best  conductors,  next  come  stony  substances. 
When  a  solid  is  sufficiently  heated  to  change  its  state,  it 
is  no  longer  a  conductor.  Ice  will  conduct  heat  at  any 
temperature  below  the  freezing  point  of  water,  but  at  32° 
it  is  no  longer  a  conductor ;  because  any  addition  of  heat 
changes  it  to  water. 

In  solids,  the  heat  moves  from  particle  to  particle, 
but  not  in  liquids  and  gaseous  bodies  ;  because  their 
particles  move  freely  among  themselves.  As  we  have 
explained  in  a  former  chapter,  bodies  are  increased  in 
bulk  by  heat,  and  are  of  course  lighter  ;  therefore,  when 
heat  is  applied  to  a  liquid,  it  heats  a  stratum  of  it  next 
the  source  of  heat,  and  it  becomes  lighter,  and  if  below 
another,  it  will  rise,  while  another  takes  its  place,  and  in 
this  way,  the  whole  becomes  heated :  of  course,  it  makes 
a  great  difference  to  what  part  of  a  liquid  we  apply  the 
heat.  If  we  apply  it  to  the  top,  it  can  make  its  way 
downward  but  slowly,  in  the  same  way  solids  are  heated ; 
but  if  it  be  applied  at  the  bottom,  it  makes  its  way  up- 
ward, in  consequence  of  the  movement  of  the  particles, 
independent  of  any  conducting  power.  Liquids  then, 
have  the  power  of  carrying  heat. 

Experiment.  —  If  we  mix  some  light  substance,  of  the 
same  specific  gravity  of  water,  with  a  portion  of  this 
liquid  in  a  glass  tube,  or  oil  flask,  and  heat  be  applied  to 
it,  the  particles  will  be  seen  in  motion ;  in  the  middle  of 
the  tube  they  will  be  seen  to  ascend,  and  near  the  sides 
to  descend.  These  motions  are  caused  by  the  heated 
particles  going  to  the  sides  and  giving  out  heat,  thus 
becoming  heavier,  they  fall  to  the  bottom,  and  push  up 
lighter  ones,  which,  in  their  turn,  lose  a  part  of  their 
heat,  and  fall  also.  Upon  this  experiment,  and  similar 
ones,  Count  Rumford  founded  this  general  rule:  the 
more  the  internal  motions  of  a  liquid  are  impeded,  the 
longer  time  does  it  require  to  heat  them  to  any  given 
temperature. 


148  HEAT. 

Liquors  are  but  slight  conductors  of  heat. 

As  before  mentioned,  the  metals  are  the  best  conduc- 
tors of  heat  ;  next  come  stony  substances ;  some  of 
which  are,  however,  better  conductors  than  others.  Bricks 
are  worse  conductors  of  heat  than  stones,  except  some 
varieties  of  sand  stone;  brick  houses,  therefore,  are  warmer 
in  winter,  and  cooler  in  summer,  than  stone  houses. 

Glass  is  a  bad  conductor  of  heat;  this  causes  it  to 
break  when  suddenly  heated,  in  consequence  of  one 
surface  being  expanded  before  the  other  can  become 
heated  so  as  to  expand  also.  Cold,  of  course,  produces 
the  same  effect  by  contracting  one  surface  before  the 
other  can  have  parted  with  its  heat.  Glass  tumblers 
which  have  thick  sides  and  bottoms,  are  very  liable  to 
break  when  hot  liquids  are  poured  into  them,  for  the 
same  reason.  The  purer  the  glass  the  less  liable  it  is  to 
break,  because  it  is  more  compact,  and  therefore  expands 
more  equally.  For  the  same  reason  crockeryware  is 
liable  to  be  broken.  Hence  also,  the  practice  of  glass 
manufacturers,  who  place  the  ware  after  it  is  blown  and 
shaped,  in  a  hot  oven  to  cool  gradually.  This  is  called 
annealing. 

Dried  woods  and  charcoal  are  very  bad  conductors  of 
heat ;  hence  the  use  of  the  latter  in  making  instruments 
for  keeping  provisions,  &/c,  in  hot  weather,  called  refri- 
gerators. Dried  bass-wood  has  only  about  four  times  as 
much  conducting  power  as  water.  Pitch-pine,  and 
spruce  are  better  conductors  than  white  pine. 

Count  Rumford  made  numerous  experiments  on  the 
conducting  power  of  the  different  substances  which  are 
used  for  clothing.  He  found  that  the  worst  conductors 
were  hare's  fur,  and  eider  down.  Next  came  beaver, 
raw  silk,  ravellings  of  manufactured  silk,  wool,  cotton, 
and  linen  lint,  and  the  more  open  the  texture  of  the 
substance,  the  worse  conductor  it  was.  For  this  reason 
blankets  are  warmer  than  fulled  cloth  of  the  same  fine- 
ness ;  eider  down  comfortables,  than  those  made  of  cotton 
or  wool.  The  warmest  clothing  is  such  as  has  the  finest 
texture  and  the  longest  nap.  All  of  these  substances 
have  a  large  quantity  of  air  combined  with  them,  and  air 
being  a  bad  conductor,  the  more  air  they  contain  among 
their  parts  the  warmer  they  are. 

There   are    numerous   instances   in   the  arts,  where 


HEAT.  149 

advantage  is  taken  of  the  property  of  bodies  in  conducting 
heat,  —  or,  what  is  the  same  thing,  in  confining  heat. 
The  brick-maker  covers  his  kilns  of  unburnt  bricks  with 
a  coating  of  burnt  bricks,  plastered  over  with  clay  and 
sand  to  keep  the  heat  in,  these  substances  being  bad 
conductors.  Furnaces  are  coated  with  the  same  mate- 
rial, or  with  charcoal,  which  is  much  better.  Double 
windows  are  to  be  seen  in  Boston  during  the  winter 
season,  the  use  of  which  is  founded  upon  the  same  prin- 
ciples—  the  air  which  is  confined  between  them  being  a 
bad  conductor  of  heat,  prevents  the  warm  air  of  the  room 
from  being  cooled  from  without. 

Upon  the  same  principles  we  may  explain  several  phe- 
nomena which,  although  of  daily  occurrence,  are  but 
seldom  understood.  If  we  apply  our  hand  in  cold 
weather  to  wood,  iron,  or  stone,  the  iron  feels  colder  than 
the  wood,  and  yet  they  have  both  been  exposed  to 
the  same  temperature,  and  of  course  if  exposed  to  the 
thermometer,  would  both  show  the  same  degree  of  heat. 
The  iron  feels  the  coldest  because,  being  the  best  con- 
ductor, it  carries  off  the  heat  of  the  hand  much  faster  than 
the-  wood,  which  is  a  bad  conductor.  For  the  same 
reason  when  iron  and  wood  are  heated  to  the  same  tem- 
perature before  a  fire  or  otherwise,  the  iron  to  the  hand  will 
feel  much  the  hottest.  Workmen  who  are  exposed  to 
great  heat  or  cold,  should  always  wear  flannel,  as  it  is  a 
slow  conductor  of  heat,  and  in  cold  weather  will  keep  the 
heat  of  the  body  in,  and  in  warm  weather  will  keep  the 
external  heat  out.  For  the  same  reason,  woollen  or 
worsted  mittens,  or  gloves,  are  much  warmer  in  winter 
and  cooler  in  summer,  than  leather. 

OF    THE    DISTRIBUTION    OF    HEAT. 

Every  person  knows  by  experience  the  common  law  of 
heat,  that  a  warm  body  cannot  remain  long  near  a  colder 
one,  without  being  deprived  of  a  part  of  its  heat,  which 
passing  to  the  colder  one  makes  it  warmer. 

Experiment.  —  If  we  mix  a  quantity  of  water  at  212°, 
with  the  same  quantity  at  32  °  ,  the  mixture  will  be  found 
to  be  122°,  which  is  the  exact  mean  of  the  two;  of 
course  the  hot  water  has  lost  90  °  of  its  heat,  while  the 
cold  water  has  gained  90  °  . 

VOL.    I.    NO.    VI.  14 


150  HEAT. 

If  any  number  of  bodies  at  different  temperatures  be 
carried  into  a  room,  in  a  short  time  the  air  of  the  room 
and  the  different  bodies  will  all  be  found  to  have  the 
same  temperature. 

Sir  Isaac  Newton  suggested  the  following  law  as  to  the 
heat  lost,  —  '  that  in  given  small  spaces  of  time  the  heat 
lost  is  always  proportional  to  the  heat  remaining  in  the 
body ; '  by  which  he  calculated  several  temperatures 
above  the  scale  of  thermometers.  This,  however,  has 
since  been  found  strictly  true  only  for  temperatures 
below  212°;  for  all  above,  it  is  only  an  approximation. 
The  heat  which  is  lost  by  a  body  in  cooling  is  partly  con- 
ducted away  by  the  air,  some  of  it  is  carried  off  by  cur- 
rents produced  in  the  air  surrounding  the  body,  and 
some  by  radiation. 

A  hot  body  will  of  course  heat  that  portion  of  the  air 
which  immediately  surrounds  it,  which  becoming  light 
will  rise  while  another  portion  of  cold  air  takes 
its  place,  and  in  this  way  a  current  will  be  pro- 
duced, which  much  accelerates  the  cooling  of  the  body. 
It  is  evident  that  this  current  will  be  the  stronger  the 
higher  the  temperature  of  the  body. 

If  these  currents  be  artificially  increased,  of  course  the 
rate  of  cooling  will  be  increased.  Hence  the  effect  of 
winds  in  cooling  bodies.  The  rate  of  cooling  is  always 
proportional  to  the  velocity  of  the  current,  or,  if  the  body 
move,  proportional  to  its  velocity.  Hence  red  hot  balls 
which  are  fired  from  cannon,  should  not  be  fired  with 
great  velocities,  or  at  great  ranges. 

OF    FLUIDITY. 

Dr  Black  was  the  first  who  explained  in  a  satisfactory 
manner  the  cause  of  fluidity.  He  found  that  when  a 
solid  body  was  converted  into  a  liquid,  a  certain  quantity 
of  heat  combined  with  it,  without  sensibly  increasing  its 
temperature  ;  and  that  this  portion  of  heat  is  !he  cause  of 
fluidity.  When  a  fluid  is  converted  into  a  solid,  a  certain 
quantity  of  heat  leaves  it  without  sensibly  diminishing  its 
temperature. 

Experiment.  — Take  a  pound  of  new  fallen  snow,  and 
add  to  it  a  pound  of  water  at  172°,  the  snow  will  be 
melted  and  the  whole  will  be  found  to  have  a  temperature 


HEAT.  151 

of  32  ° .  Here,  140  °  of  heat  has  left  the  water  and  com- 
bined with  the  snow,  and  thus  caused  it  to  melt;  yet  the 
water  resulting  from  this  melted  snow  has  the  same  tem- 
perature as  the  snow.  Therefore  a  pound  of  snow 
requires  140°  of  heat  to  melt  it. 

Water  after  being  cooled  down  to  32°  cannot  freeze 
until  it  has  parted  with  140°  of  heat,  and  ice  after  being 
heated  to  32°  will  not  melt  until  it  has  absorbed  140  °o 
heat ;  hence  the  slowness  with  which  these  operations  are 
performed. 

To  the  quantity  of  heat  which  thus  combines  with  a 
body  and  causes  fluidity,  Dr  Black  gave  the  name  of 
latent  heat. 

The  fluidity  of  all  bodies  is  owing  to  the  same  cause, 
and  it  may  be  considered  as  a  general  law,  that  whenever 
a  solid  is  converted  into  a  liquid,  it  combines  with  heat. 
Metals  owe  their  ductility  and  malleability  to  the  latent 
heat  which  they  contain.  Hence,  we  have  the  reason 
why  they  become  hot  and  brittle  by  being  hammered, 

OF    STEAM    AND     EVAPORATION. 

Nearly  every  liquid  body  when  raised  to  a  certain 
temperature  is  gradually  converted  into  an  elastic  fluid, 
which  like  air  is  invisible.  Water  when  heated  suffi- 
ciently is  converted  into  an  elastic  fluid,  called  steam, 
which  is  invisible,  and  has  the  same  mechanical  pro- 
perties as  air.  One  cubic  inch  of  water  will  make  1800 
cubic  inches  of  steam. 

When  a  vessel  of  water  is  placed  over  a  fire,  the  water 
gradually  heats  until  it  reaches  2 12°,  after  which  its 
temperature  will  not  increase  ;  yet,  heat  must  be  gradually 
and  constantly  combining  with  it,  and  as  it  does  not 
become  hotter,  it  must  combine  with  the  steam  which  is 
constantly  flying  off;  but  the  steam  isonly  at  21(2°,  of 
course  the  heat  must  become  latent,  and  we  must  con- 
clude that  the  change  of  water  into  steam  is  owing  to  this 
latent  heat. 

Steam  is  water  combined  with  about  1000°  of  heat, 
therefore,  as  has  been  before  shown,  a  given  quantity  of 
steam  at  212°  ,  will  heat  a  great  deal  more  water  than  an 
equal  weight  of  water  at  212°,  because  it  contains  a 
great  deal  more  heat,  which  is  given  out  by  changing  the 
steam  into  water. 


152  HEAT. 

The  bubbling  of  water  when  boiling,  is  owing  to  the 
formation  of  steam,  which  rises  continually  from  the 
bottom  to  the  top  of  the  vessel.  At  the  common  pressure 
of  the  air,  near  the  level  of  the  sea,  water  boils  at  2 12°  . 
The  higher  we  carry  water  up  the  side  of  a  mountain, 
the  less  heat  is  required  to  make  it  boil ;  because  a  part 
of  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  removed.  A  differ- 
ence of  1  °  in  the  boiling  point  of  water  corresponds  to 
a  difference  in  elevation  of  nearly  520  feet.  The  heavier 
the  air  is,  the  greater  the  pressure,  and  of  course  the 
more  heat  is  required  to  make  water  boil.  By  increasing 
the  pressure  sufficiently,  water  may  be  heated  to  400° 
without  ebullition.  The  effect  of  pressure  on  the  boiling  of 
water,  may  be  shown  by  this  experiment.  Take  a  com- 
mon olive  oil  flask,  fit  a  good  cork  to  it,  put  about  half  a  gill 
of  water  into  it,  and  place  it  over  a  lamp  until  it  boils. 
Permit  the  boiling  to  continue  a  short  time,  and  then 
place  the  cork  in  the  neck  tight,  and  remove  it  from  the 
lamp ;  the  water  will  continue  to  boil  a  short  time  after. 
On  plunging  the  flask  into  cold  water,  the  boiling  will 
again  commence  with  violence.  Remove  the  flask  into 
hot  water  and  the  boiling  will  cease ;  and  if  it  is  again 
plunged  into  cold  water,  it  will  again  boil. 

The  boiling  of  the  water  in  this  experiment,  before  the 
cork  is  placed  in  it,  expels  the  air  in  the  bottle,  and 
steam  takes  its  place  ;  and  the  flask  when  removed  from 
the  lamp,  becomes  a  little  cooled,  which  condenses  a 
portion  of  the  steam,  which  removes  some  of  the  pressure, 
and  thus  causes  the  water  still  to  boil.  When  the  flask 
is  plunged  into  cold  water,  more  of  the  steam  is  con- 
densed, and  more  of  the  pressure  removed,  which  causes 
it  to  boil  violently  ;  and  when  the  bottle  is  placed  in 
warm  water,  a  portion  of  steam  is  again  formed,  thereby 
increasing  the  pressure,  and  thus  prevents  the  boiling  — 
which  pressure  is  again  removed  by  plunging  the  Mask 
into  cold  water,  and  thus  causes  the  water  again  to  boil. 
Steam  imparts  its  great  heat  so  easily  to  bodies  which 
are  colder  than  itself,  as  to  fit  it  peculiarly  for  many  useful 
practical  purposes  in  the  arts  and  in  domestic  life.  The 
heat  produced  by  means  of  steam,  for  many  purposes  is 
preferable  to  the  heat  of  fire.  Dyers'  and  brewers'  vats 
are  much  better  heated  by  steam  than  in  any  other  way. 


HEAT.  153 

Many  colors  are  better  and  more  economically  prepared 
by  steam  than  by  fire.  Vegetable  extracts  for  medi- 
cinal purposes  are  best  prepared  by  the  heat  of  steam. 
For  heating  baths,  steam  is  far  cheaper  than  fire.  Large 
or  small  apartments  may  be  warmed  by  steam  with  clean- 
liness andj  great  safety.  All  the  culinary  operations  of 
boiling  are  better  performed  by  steam  than  in  any  other 
way.  In  order  to  heat  a  liquid  by  steam,  the  vessel  con- 
taining the  liquid,  should  be  placed  in  a  larger  one, 
making  the  open  space  between  them  steam  tight,  and  the 
steam  admitted  into  this  space  will  raise  20  gallons  of 
water  at  5'2°,  to  212°  in  eleven  minutes. 

One  gallon  of  water  made  into  steam  will  heat  six 
gallons  at  50°  to  the  boiling  point,  or  eighteen  gallons 
from  50°  to  100°. 

It  has  been  found  that  in  warming  large  buildings,  such 
as  manufactories,  one  cubic  foot  of  the  boiler  will  heat  2000 
cubic  feet  of  space  to  70  °  or  80  ° ;  and  that  one  square 
foot  of  surface  of  a  steam  pipe,  will  heat  two  hundred 
cubic  feet  of  space.  Cast-iron  pipes  are  considered  the 
best  for  heating  apartments  by  steam,  and  should  be 
covered  with  lampblack  and  placed  near  the  floor,  as  the 
coldest  air  is  always  lowest. 

Animal  food  is  considered  more  nutritious  and  easier 
to  digest,  when  prepared  with  steam,  than  when  cooked  in 
the  usual  method. 

Evaporation. — When  a  liquid  gradually  assumes  the 
form  of  an  elastic  vapor  at  all  temperatures,  it  is  said  to 
evaporate  ;  and  as  the  temperature  is  increased,  the  eva- 
poration is  also  increased.  Likewise,  as  the  pressure  is 
diminished,  the  evaporation  is  increased. 

The  reason  of  evaporation  is  beautifully  explained  by 
the  doctrine  of  latent  heat.  We  have  explained  how 
liquids,  in  order  to  be  converted  into  steam  or  vapor, 
require  a  large  quantity  of  heat,  which  combines  with 
them  and  becomes  latent,  and  taking  away  this  heat  pro- 
duces cold. 

Experiment. — Place  a  watch  glass  with  a  small  quantity 
of  ether  in  it,  in  another  glass  containing  a  small  quantity  of 
water,  and  place  them  both  under  the  receiver  of  an 
air-pump.  Exhaust  the  receiver,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
ether  will  have  disappeared,  and  the  water  will  be  frozen. 
,  TOL.  i.  NO.  vi.  14* 


154  HEAT. 

Here,  removing  the  pressure,  the  ether  evaporated,  and 
deprived  the  water  of  its  heat  and  it  became  frozen.  Of 
course  evaporation  always  produces  cold. 

It  is  owing  to  the  evaporation  of  water,  that  showers  in 
summer  cool  and  refresh  the  earth,  by  the  evaporation  of 
the  rain  which  is  spread  over  its  surface. 

Many  practical  uses  are  made  of  this  property.  The 
natives  of  India  wear  moist  cloths  about  their  heads  to 
keep  them  cool,  which  is  done  by  the  evaporation  of  the 
water.  The  same  people  preserve  their  apartments  cool 
during  the  night,  by  hanging  them  with  wet  cloths. 
Wine-cockers  produce  their  effect  entirely  by  evaporation. 
Caravans  which  cross  the  hot  deserts  of  Asia  and  Africa, 
carry  earthen  bottles  filled  with  water,  which  is  pre- 
served cool  by  having  the  bottles  wrapped  around  with 
wet  cloths. 

The  effect  of  evaporation  is  of  the  greatest  importance 
to  man,  in  preserving  the  human  body  at  a  liealthy  tempe- 
rature. The  natural  heat  of  the  body  is  about  90°. 
Active  exercise  or  exposure  to  great  heat,  raises  the 
temperature  of  the  body,  which  is  unhealthy  ;  but  perspi- 
ration, brings  a  watery  fluid  to  the  surface,  which 
by  being  evaporated,  soon  reduces  the  heat  of  the  body 
to  its  healthy  state. 

Distillation. — Some  liquids  are  more  easily  converted 
into  vapor  than  others.  If  two  liquids,  which  boil  at  dif- 
ferent temperatures  be  mixed  together,  they  may  be  again 
separated  by  exposing  them  to  such  a  heat  as  will  cause 
that  which  boils  at  the  lowest  temperature,  to  assume  the 
state  of  vapor,  which  by  being  collected  and  condensed 
by  cold,  will  form  the  original  liquid,  while  the  other  is 
left  in  the  vessel.  This  is  the  process  in  the  distillation 
of  all  substances. 

If  the  pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  removed  from  the 
substances  to  be  distilled,  the  operation  for  some  pur- 
poses' is  much  better  performed.  Vinegar  distilled  in 
this  way  is  perfectly  pellucid  and  of  an  agreeable  flavor, 
which  it  has  not  when  distilled  in  the  usual  way. 

OF    COLD. 

We  have  already  explained,  that  when  a  body  passes 
from  a  solid  to  a  liquid  state,  it  must  absorb  a  large 


}  } 


HEAT.  155 

quantity  of  heat,  which  produces  cold.  By  applying  this 
principle  to  the  conversion  of  certain  salts  into  liquids,  an 
intense  degree  of  cold  may  be  produced.  Thus  by  mix- 
ing two  parts  of  snow  with  one  part  of  muriate  of  soda, 
(common  salt),  a  degree  of  cold  5°  below  zero  may  be 
produced.  Dry  potash,  (carbonate  of  potash,)  mixed  with 
snow  will  produce  cold  53  °  below  zero. 

The  following  table  shows  the  proportions  of  different 
ingredients,  and  the  degree  of  cold  produced  by  mixing 
them  together,     In  all  cases  the  effect  is  produced  by  the 
sudden  conversion  of  the  solid  salts  into  liquids. 
•  Cold  mixtures,  produced  without  snow  or  ice. 

Mixtures.  Parts.         Thermometer  sinks. 

From  50  °    to  4  c  . 

Sulphate  of  Soda  (Glauber's  Salt)  3  )      «     50  °    to  10  ° 

Diluted  Nitric  Acid  (AquaFortis)  2  )  below  zero. 

Sulphate  of  Soda  8  \ 
Muriatic     Acid   (Spirit  of  Salt        >      "     50  °  to  zero. 

or  Marine  Acid)  5  ) 

Phosphate  of  Soda  9  )      „  o  o 

Nitrate  of  Ammonia  6  > 

Diluted  Nitric  Acid  4$  below  zero. 

Cold  mixtures  with  snow  and  ice. 

mixtures.  Parts.  Thermometer  sinks. 

Snow  or  pounded  ice        3  \ 

Diluted  Sulphuric  acid,       }  From  32  °   to  23  °  below  0. 
(oil  of  Vitriol,)        2  j 

"      «•  l»40-  bdw  0. 
Snow  2  \ 

Crystallized  muriate  of        >     "       32°  to  50°  below  0. 

lime  3  ) 

If  these  materials  are  cooled  down  before  they  are 
mixed,  by  exposure  to  frigorific  mixtures,  a  much  greater 
degree  of  cold  may  be  produced  in  some  cases  —  thus,  in 
the  last  mixture,  in  the  above  table,  if  the  snow  and 
muriate  of  lime  be  cooled  down  to  40  °  below  zero,  and 
then  mixed,  a  cold  of  73°  below  zero  will  be  produced. 
The  greatest  degree  of  cold  ever  produced  by  artificial 
means,  was  93  °  below  zero. 


156  HEAT. 

Artificial  cold  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  some  arti- 
cles of  luxury  for  the  palate,  and  is  often  employed  in 
philosophical  experiments,  as  in  freezing  mercury,  &-c. 

OP    THE    SOURCES    OF    HEAT. 

The  two  principal  sources  of  heat  are,  the  sun,  and 
combustion ;  there  are  others,  but  we  shall  confine  our 
remarks  to  these.  Heat  is  constantly  radiating  from  the 
sun,  and  evolved  or  given  out  during  the  combustion  or 
burning  of  bodies. 

The  vital  part  of  our  solar  system  is  the  sun,  from  this 
source  we  receive  all  the  heat  necessary  for  producing 
the  fruits  and  flowers  of  our  earth,  which  are  matured 
and  perfected  by  the  light  from  the  same  body.  We  may 
behold  the  wisdom  of  that  Power,  that  balanced  the  sun 
and  planets  in  the  heavens,  displayed  in  an  equal  degree 
in  the  distribution  of  the  animals  and  plants  of  our  little 
planet,  according  to  their  respective  natures,  as  far  as 
respects  heat  and  light.  Those  animals  which  are  placed 
in  the  arctic  regions,  are  all  protected  from  the  cold  by  a 
covering  of  fine  fur,  exactly  adapted  to  keeping  out  the 
cold  ;  while  those  of  the  tropics  have  a  covering  adapted 
to  their  climate — like  the  elephant,  who  has  scarcely  any 
covering. 

It  is  not  our  purpose  at  present,  to  inquire  into  the 
cause  of  the  immense  quantity  of  heat  and  light  which 
we  constantly  receive  from  the  sun.  Dr  Herschel  sup- 
poses it  to  be  owing  to  luminous  clouds,  which  float  in 
the  atmosphere  of  the  sun,  and  as  these  clouds  are  subject 
to  various  changes,  both  in  quantity  and  lustre,  he  ac- 
counts for  the  difference  in  the  heat  of  different  years. 

When  a  piece  of  glass  is  exposed  to  the  rays  of  the 
sun,  it  is  not  soon  heated  ;  but  if  a  piece  of  iron,  of  the 
same  thickness  be  exposed  during  the  same  time,  it  will 
soon  become  heated  ;  in  the  same  manner,  all  transparent 
bodies  stop  but  few  of  the  solar  heating  rays,  while  opaque 
bodies  intercept  more  or  less  of  them  ;  and  the  darker  the 
color  of  the  opaque  body,  the  more  heat  is  intercepted. 
Hence,  arises  Dr  Franklin's  rules  for  the  color  of  cloth- 
ing. Black  or  dark  colors  during  winter,  and  white  or 
light  colors  for  summer.  But  it  is  to  be  questioned 
whether  these  conclusions  are  correct.  By  a  reference  to 


HEAT.  157 

what  we  have  said  upon  radiation,  it  will  be  seen,  that 
dark  colors  radiate  more  heat  than  light  ones  :  therefore, 
dark  clothing  carries  off  more  of  the  heat  of  the  body, 
than  light  colored  would. 

The  heat,  produced  by  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun  upon 
a  body,  seldom  exceeds  120°,  but  by  a  peculiar  contri- 
vance to  prevent  the  heat  from  being  carried  off  by  the 
surrounding  bodies  220°  or  230°  may  be  produced. 

When  the  rays  of  the  sun  are  concentrated,  they  pro- 
duce a  much  greater  effect,  as  with  a  burning  glass 
bodies  may  be  set  on  fire  at  a  considerable  distance  ;  they 
must  be  diret-ted,  however,  upon  a  body  that  will  absorb 
or  retain  them,  if  they  are  directed  upon  apiece  of  glass, 
it  will  not  be  heated,  nor  will  any  transparent  body,  such 
as  air,  or  water.  In  these  cases,  the  heating  power  of  the 
sun's  rays,  is  not  augmented  by  concentrating  them  ;  the 
effect  is  owing  entirely  to  the  great  number  of  rays  which 
are  brought  upon  one  point. 

Combustion. — Among  all  the  natural  phenomena  which 
daily  take  place  around  us,  there  is  none  more  wonderful 
than  combustion,  and  there  is  none  less  understood  ;  and 
yet  its  vast  utility  seems  to  demand  that  all  should  know 
its  cause,  and  the  relative  powers  of  the  various  combusti- 
ble bodies  which  are  used  in  the  arts  and  trades,  as  well 
as  for  domestic  purposes. 

If  a  piece  of  iron,  and  one  of  wood,  of  the  same 
size  be  exposed  to  the  same  heat  until  the  iron  is  red  hot, 
quite  different  effects  will  be  produced  upon  them.  The 
iron  continues  to  acquire  heat,  up  to  a  certain  point, 
where  it  will  remain,  while  the  wood  will  heat  to  a  certain 
point,  and  then  suddenly  become  much  hotter  of  itself; 
affording  at  the  same  time  abundance  of  heat  and  light. 
After  a  short  time  this  heat  and  light  will  diminish,  and 
finally  cease,  although  still  exposed  to  the  same  heat  as 
at  the  beginning.  If  the  two  bodies  be  now  withdrawn 
from  the  heat  and  permitted  to  cool,  the  iron  will  be 
found  to  have  undergone  no  change,  while  what  was 
wood  is  quite  another  thing,  having  lost  its  shape,  weight 
and  color,  and  is  no  longer  capable  of  being  set  on  fire  as 
before.  Again,  if  charcoal  be  heated  to  about  800°,  it 
takes  fire  and  becomes  intensely  hot,  which  after  a  time 
diminishes,  and  finally  ceases,  when  it  will  be  found 


158  HEAT. 

that  it  has  entirely  disappeared,  except  a  very  small 
quantity  of  ashes.  What  has  become  of  it  1  It  has  been 
almost  entirely  converted  into  a  peculiar  kind  of  air 
or  gas,  called  carbonic  acid  gas,  (dead  air),  which  has 
escaped,  unless  the  experiment  was  conducted  in  proper 
vessels  for  collecting  it.  If  collected,  it  will  be  found  to 
greatly  exceed  in  weight  the  charcoal  first  heated. 

In  order  that  a  body  may  burn,  oxygen  gas  is  ne- 
cessary. And  as  the  air  we  breathe  is  a  mixture  of  this 
gas  and  another  called  azote,  or  nitrogen,  common  air  is 
said  to  be  necessary  in  order  to  enable  a  body  to  burn,  or 
in  other  words  to  undergo  combustion.  In  every  case  of 
combustion,  heat  and  light  are  produced,  and  there  is  a 
total  change  in  the  nature  of  the  body  burnt.  The  im- 
mortal Lavoiser  was  the  first  who  explained  the  phe- 
nomenon of  burning  in  a  satisfactory  manner.  He  sup- 
posed that  oxygen  is  combined  with  heat  and  light ;  and 
when  therefore  a  body  is  burnt,  the  oxygen  gas  of  the  air 
is  decomposed,  heat  and  light  are  set  free,  while  the  re- 
mainder of  the  gas,  or  its  base,  combines  with  the  body 
burnt,  and  forms  the  product,  ashes,  carbonic  acid  gas, 
&-c.  The  products  will  not  burn,  of  course,  because 
they  are  already  combined  with  as  much  oxygen  as 
possible. 

We  may  now  explain  the  cause  why  the  products  of  the 
charcoal  mentioned  above,  weigh  more  that  the  coal 
first  used.  The  oxygen  has  weight,  and  having  combined 
with  a  part  of  the  coal,  forming  the  dead  air ;  of  course, 
the  products  weigh  more  than  the  coal  alone. 

The  quantity  of  heat  evolved  during  combustion  is  not 
only  highly  important  as  an  object  of  economy,  but 
interesting  in  a  philosophical  point  of  view.  Several  phi- 
losophers have  investigated  the  subject,  and  no  one  with 
more  success  than  our  countryman,  Count  Rumford.  He 
found  how  many  pounds  of  ice  were  melted  by  the  burn- 
ing of  one  pound  of  the  body  tried.  The  following  table 
shows  some  of  his  results. 

Ibs.  Ibs. 

Olive  Oil  93,07  Tallow  111,53 

Rape-sr-ed  Oil    124,09  •    Alcohol  07,47 

Wax  (Bees')       120,24 

The  following  table  exhibits  the  results  of  a  set  of  simi- 


159 


lar  experiments  conducted  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
above,  on  some  of  the  common  combustibles  which  are 
used  in  New  England,  as  determined  by  the  writer  of  this 
tract. 

Ibs.    oz. 

Oak  (white),  (Quercus  alba)  dry          -    -     39     4 

do.  do  green     -     -     32     1 

Oak  (yellow)  (Quercus  castanea)  dry     -     -     41     7 

do.  do.  green      -     -     35    5 

Hickory   (Gary  a  squmosa)   dry  -     -     43     3 

do.  do.  green      -     -     40 

Maple  (rock)  (Acer  saccharinum)  dry    -     -     43     1 
do.  do.  green     -     -     41  10 

Maple  (white)  (Acer  dasycarpum)  dry   -     -     39 
Pine  (white)  (Pinus  strobus)  dry  -    •     29  12 

do.  do.  green     -     -     22 

Pine  (pitch)  (Pinus  rigida)  dry  -     -     33     9 

do.  do  green    -     -     29     2 

Liverpool  Coal          -  80 

Lehigh  Coal  -  -  89     4 

Rhode  Island  -          89  12 

Charcoal  (oak)          -  -          97     1 

do.        (pine)        -  -          70 

The  heating  power  of  all  the  above  woods  s  found  to 
be  considerably  augmented  by  drying  them  in  a  hot 
oven.  The  wood,  when  burnt,  was  in  the  state  of  small 
shavings. 

Heat  is  likewise  produced  by  percussion,  friction,  and 
the  mixture  o  certain  substances  ;  also  by  electricity,  &c, 
all  of  which  with  propriety  we  shall  defer  to  another  op- 
portunity, and  conclude  this  essay  with  the  advice  of  a 
great  and  good  man.  '  Tf.you  would  discover  the  hidden 
causes  of  nature's  grand  operations,  you  must  first  learn 
and  elucidate  those  which  are  simple  and  of  every  day  oc- 
currence before  your  eyes.  It  is  from  small  causes  that 
great  effects  are  produced.' 


AGENTR 

FOB  THE 

SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

MAINE. 

Norwich,            Thomas  Kooinson. 

Portland,          Samuel  CoZmo»- 

Middletown,      Kdwin  Hunt. 

Ilallowell,         C.  Spaulding. 

NEW  YORK. 

Augusta,          P.  Ji.  Brinsmade. 

New  York,         diaries  S.  Francis. 

Bangor,             B.  Nourse. 

Albany,              Z,i«/«  $•   C«7nmin.r». 

Belfast,             JV.  P.  Hawes. 

Canandaigua,     Bern  is  4-    JTwd. 

Eastport,        j  f  ^^ 

Troy,                    W.  S.  Parktr. 
Utica,                  G   S.  Wilson. 

Norway,            Asa  Barton, 

Rochester,          E.  Pfct  $  Co. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

n                     (  Eli  French, 

Trenton,             D.  Fcnion. 

Dover,          ,|  g   c  S£(* 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Hanover,           Thomas  Mann. 
Concord,            Horatio  ISll  4-   Co. 

Philadelphia,  j  &££^J5?*-P' 

Keene,               Georg-e  7'jWen. 

MARYLAND."  ' 

Portsmouth,      Jvhn  W.  Foster. 
VERMONT. 

Baltimore,          CAorf<-.»  Carfer. 
DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Burlington,       C.  Goodrich. 
Brattleboro',     Geo.  11.  Ptek. 

Washington,      Thompson  f{  Homans. 
Georgetown,      James  Thomas. 

Windsor,           Simeon  Jde. 

VIRGINIA. 

Montpelier,      J.  S.    Walton. 
Bellows  Falls,  James  I.  Cutler  *  Co. 
Rutland,             Win.  Fay. 
Middleburv,      Jonathan  Hagm: 

Fredericksburg,  H  TO.  F.  Gray,  P.  M. 
OHIO. 
Cincinnati,     j  Mffl^jJ.^  J.U 

Castleton,          B.  Burt,  2rf. 

Columbus,          .7.  .V.   U'/iitinrr. 

St  Albans,         L.  L.  Dutcher. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Chester,             Charles  Wliipplt, 
MASSACHUSETTS. 

Natches,            F.  Bruwi.ont. 
SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Salem,               Wltipple  4-  Lawrence. 
Newburvport,  diaries   H'hipjile. 

Charleston,        Kbenc-.er  Ttayer. 
NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Northampton,  S.  Butler  4-  Son. 
Andover,            .V.  j?cinna*. 

Raleigh,             Turner  4r   Jluahes. 
GEORGIA. 

Amherst,           .7.  S.  4'   C.  Jluam*. 
Worcester,        Dowr  4-   1  Intel    ml. 

Savannah,          TAowia*  jV.  Driseolt. 
ALABAMA. 

Springfield,        Thomas  nickn,*n. 
New  Bedford,   ji.Shear,mn,Jr.^Co. 

Mobile,              0</ior«e  4-  Swu'tA. 
LOUISIANA. 

Methuen,           J.  W.  Carlton  tf  Co 

New  Orleans,    Mara  Carroll. 

Brookficld,        r..  S(  G.  .Verrium. 

MICHIGAN  TERRITORY. 

RHODE  ISLAND.     . 

Prrtwi'lonpo     ^  Corey  4"  BTOWI^ 

Detroit,             Georne,  L.   Whitney. 
CANADA. 

IrovUence,   j  ^  s>  OtekvioL 

Montreal,          7/.  If.  Cunningham. 

.  .           CONNECTICUT. 

auebcc,             JVeilson  (f  Cowan. 

Hartford,          /^fr  F.  J.  TTaiititinton 
New  Haven,     4-  #•  Maltby. 

ENGLAND. 

London,            John  Mardtn. 

.;    JT                    ROSTON: 

PUBLISHED  BY  CARTER,  HENDEE  &  BABCOCK, 

f       Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 

lON     CLASSIC     PRESS  I.     R.     B  D  T  T  S. 

%*  T$fcs—  24  Numbers  a  year,  at  OWE  aoLLAr.  AMD  FIFTY 

CENTS.  " 

jL  <*, 

SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER  VII. 


ENTOMOLOGY. 

AMONG  the  different  sciences  which  of  late  years  have 
been  zealously  studied  in  this  portion  of  our  country, 
none,  perhaps,  have  received  more  attention  than  several 
branches  of  Natural  History. 

A  taste  for  these  pursuits  is  rapidly  increasing,  as  the 
pleasure  and  instruction  received  from  them  are  pointed 
out  by  those  who  have  diligently  and  faithfully  investiga- 
ted them.  But  while  peculiar  circumstances  have  ren- 
dered some  of  these  branches  more  popular  than  others, 
a  few  have  been  neglected  almost  altogether.  Thus  while 
the  objects  of  some  may  have  been  eagerly  sought  after  at 
much  labor  and  pecuniary  expense,  and  those  of  others 
have  been  carefully  examined  and  accurately  arranged, 
several  have  been  permitted  to  remain  unheeded  and 
unsought  for. 

Mineralogy,  indebted  for  much  of  its  popularity  as  a 
science  among  us  within  a  few  years,  to  the  brilliancy  of 
a  star  in  the  East,  has  become  not  only  a  delightful 
pursuit  for  the  student  at  our  Universities,  but  an  amuse- 
ment for  the  man  of  leisure,  and  a  fashionable  recreation 
among  the  most  wealthy. 

The  variety  and  beauty  of  our  plants  —  the  pleasing 
associations  at  all  times  recalled  by  reverting  to  the  days 
of  our  childhood,  when  we  so  joyously  plucked  them  — 
and  the  unusual  facilities  offered  for  their  study,  have 
rendered  them  the  objects  of  general  admiration.  Few 
are  there  among  us  who  have  not  some  slight  acquaint- 
ance with  this  fascinating  branch ;  who  cannot  describe 
the  parts  which  compose  a  flower,  and  distinguish  many 
of  our  frequently  observed  species.  Here  we  have  great 
inducements  to  proceed,  being  furnished  with  many  in- 
valuable aids.  Dictionaries  and  manuals,  written  in  the 
VOL-  i. — NO.  vn.  15 


162  ENTOMOLOGY. 


most  simple  and  attractive" manner,  —  freed  from  all  the 
useless  terms  with  which  the  older  writers  had  em- 
barrassed the  subject,  and  pointing  out  its  pleasures  and 
advantages,  have  been  afforded  us  by  those  who  were 
well  qualified  for  the  arduous  duty.  An  impetus  was 
long  since  given  ;  and  the  establishment  of  Professor- 
ships at  our  colleges,  and  the  introduction  of  elementary 
works  on  this  subject,  not  only  into  seminaries  devoted 
to  the  education  of  our  young  ladies,  but  also  into  the 
schools  of  children,  prove  how  desirable  the  possession  of 
this  branch  of  knowledge  is  considered.  This  taste, 
enthusiastic,  as  it  may  almost  be  called,  is  yearly  in- 
creasing by  means  of  the  spirited  efforts  of  our  horti- 
culturists, who,  not  content  to  cultivate  the  natives  of 
our  own  soil  alone,  are  continually  introducing  many 
varieties  of  rare  and  choice  exotics. 

Zoology  has  not  been  extensively  studied  with  us. 
Comparatively  few,  very  few,  have  devoted  themselves  to 
an  examination  of  the  animal  world,  although  in  each  of 
its  departments,  individuals  have  distinguished  themselves 
by  their  industry  and  talents ;  and  invaluable  papers 
relating  to  objects  in  most  of  these  departments  are  trea- 
sured up  in  our  scientific  periodicals. 

Our  birds  have  been  minutely  and  correctly  described, 
and  splendidly  figured  by  Wilson,  and  Bonaparte,  and 
Audubon  ;  and  we  are  soon  to  be  gratified  with  a  work 
on  these  animals  from  the  pen  of  Nuttall,  whose  name  is 
a  sure  pledge  of  the  accuracy -and  perfection  of  the  great 
undertaking. 

Conchology,  the  study  of  shells,  has  been  more  at- 
tended to,  than  either  of  the  other  branches  of  this  great 
division.  The  objects  of  this  class  are  generally  trea- 
sured up  for  their  beauty;  and  on  this  account  it  is  a  fa- 
vorite branch  with  our  young  ladies.  Cabinets  formed 
by  them  are  often  met  with,  showing  a  taste,  and  per- 
severance, and  knowledge,  of  which  they  may  well  be 
proud 

But  while  these  branches  are  pursued  with  such  una- 
bating  zeal,  the  same  individual  oftentimes  takes  but  a 
cursory  view  of  the  most  delightful  branch  of  the  works 
of  nature  —  the  Insect  creation.  To  procure  the  humblest 


ENTOMOLOGY. 


163 


moss,  he  will  toil  up  the  rugged  mountain  with  eagerness, 
regardless  alike  of  fatigue  and  exposure,  and  feel  richly 
repaid  by  the  possession  of  his  undescribed  treasure. 
For  a  beautiful  shell,  with  cheerfulness  will  he  part 
with  his  last  dollar,  and  proudly  add  it  to  hrs  finely 
polished  and  carefully  arranged  cabinet.  But  why,  it 
may  be  asked,  is  the  study  of  insects  less  cultivated  than 
either  of  the  other  branches  ?  Why  have  they  each  en- 
thusiastic disciples  wherever  we  may  look,  while  those 
who  devote  themselves  to  this  branch,  are  comparatively  so 
few  ?  Would  the  bver  of  nature,  he  who  delights  to  re- 
tire from  the  scenes  of  a  busy  woild,  and  amid  the  har- 
mony about  him,  forget  the  bitterness  of  his  daily  cup, 
cherish  a  fond  delight  for  the  vegetable  kingdom,  or 
listen  enraptured  to  the  free  and  delicious  notes  of  the 
joyous  songsters,  and  not  even  capture  the  splendid 
object  before  him,  or  bestow  upon  it  a  passing  moment, 
if  from  it  he  could  reap  either  pleasure  or  advantage  ?  I 
would  endeavor  to  answer  such  questions,  —  to  remove 
the  objections  which  may  exist  to  the  study  of  entomo- 
logy, and  offer  such  motives  as  may  appear  why  it  should 
be  cultivated  with  equal  devotion  as  the  other  depart- 
ments of  Natural  History. 

OBJECTIONS. 

Many  an  individual  has  in  childhood  imbibed  an 
aversion  for  insects,  from  the  circumstance  of  having  met 
with  them  in  his  articles  of  food ;  or  having  observed 
them  in  situations,  little  to  be  desired  either  for  their 
cleanliness  or  comfort ;  an  aversion,  which,  like  other 
early  impressions,  is  extremely  difficult  to  be  removed ; 
increasing,  unless  an  effort  be  made  to  destroy  it,  in  pro- 
portion to  the  frequency  of  the  exposure.  Who  does  not, 
if  in  his  boyish  days  he  has  often  noticed  an  insect  hover- 
ing over  a  stagnant  pool,  or  glutting  itself  with  putre- 
fying matter,  particularly  if  he  has  seized  that  insect  and 
found  it  not  only  overrun  with  parasites,  but  emitting  a 
most  offensive  odour,  even  more  unpleasant  than  that 
arising  from  its  repast  —  who  does  not  remember,  that 
the  mere  presence  of  that  insect,  preserved  perhaps  by 
some  zealous  companion,  did  for  a  time  recall  the  preju- 
dices which  were  so  early  formed,  and  all  the  trifling 


164  ENTOMOLOGY. 


circumstances  which  existed  to  fix  them  ?  This  disgust, 
occasioned  by  an  individual,  involuntarily  leads  many  to 
avoid  the  whole  class. 

The  inconveniences  suffered  from  insects,  and  the 
injuries  produced  by  them,  cause  many  superficial  ob- 
servers to  turn  from  these  to  other  objects,  more  worthy 
their  interest.  The  musquitto,  and  flea,  and  bug,  leave  im- 
pressions not  easily  to  be  effaced.  The  acute  sufferings 
of  a  night  are  not  forgotten  for  years.  But  when,  in  addi- 
tion to  these  annoyances,  our  clothes,  and  furniture,  and 
books,  —  the  dearly  collected  specimens  of  the  naturalist, 
and  the  cheaply  purchased  works  of  art  are  all  ruined  by 
various  species  of  this  class,  no  slight  degree  of  philoso- 
phy is  required,  to  revert  to  these  animals  without 
awakening  unpleasant  associations.  And  if  beside  these, 
we  perceive  the  merciless  destroyers  blasting  our  forest 
and  fruit  trees,  our  most  valuable  vegetables  and  choicest 
plants,  — depriving  us  of  our  grain  when  it  is  carefully 
gathered  into  store-houses,  and  thus  adding  to  the  distresses 
of  the  poor,  when  they  are  least  able  to  bear  them,  it  is  not 
surprising  that  a  feeling  of  uneasiness  should  often  A>e 
awakened ;  nor  that  the  mind  which  dwells  upon  the 
clouds  only  in  the  horizon,  should  forget  that  they  are 
sometimes  'dispelled.  The  entomologist,  even,  cannot 
read  the  histories  of  some  particular  species,  without  agi- 
tation. The  locust,  for  example,  must  ever  excite  a 
degree  of  terror  in  the  minds  of  the  most  enthusiastic. 
Although  Arabia  appears  to  be  the  favorite  resort  of  these 
dreaded  intruders  they  have  visited  the  other  countries 
of  Asia  ;  and  not  only  these,  but  Africa  and  Europe  also 
have  felt  their  unrelenting  havbc.  From  the  earliest  times 
we  have  been  taught  to  shudder  at  their  devastations. 
And  removed  as  far  as  we  may  be  from  the  countries  of 
this  genus,  we  cannot  carefully  read  of  the  ruin  produced 
by  them,  without  a  sensation  of  horror.  Not  only  do 
they  destroy  every  part  of  plants,  and  trees,  and  grasses, 
the  root,  trunk,  leaf,  bud,  fruit,  with  merciless  voracity, 
but  every  green  thing  is  swept'off  without  distinction ; 
thus  depopulating  nations,  and  carrying  more  dread  with 
them  than  the  most  powerful  armies.  Nothing  but  deso- 
lation can  be  connected  with  a  host  of  these,  extending 
five  hundred  miles,  and  so  dense  that  when  on  wing,  like 


ENTOMOLOGY.  165 


an  eclipse,  they  completely  hide  the  sun.  But  this  is  not  all. 
These  immense  multitudes,  when  they  have  destroyed 
everything  about  them,  die ;  and  their  decomposing  car- 
cases often  produce  the  plague.  One  hundred  thousand 
men  have  been  swept  off  in  Africa  in  one  season,  and 
nearly  a  million  of  men  and  beasts  in  Italy,  by  this  cause. 

The  insignificance  of  the  animals  belonging  to  this 
class,  prevents  many  from  engaging  in  the  study.  A 
senseless  worm,  say  some,  is  unworthy  the  attention  of 
man.  Other  objects  should  occupy  his  thoughts.  Nobler 
pursuits  should  claim  his  precious  time. 

Others,  alive  to  sensibility,  at  once  shrink  from  a  pur- 
suit which  to  them  appears  cruel  in  the  extreme,  and  thus 
suppress  an  inclination  which  might  prompt  them  to  be- 
come benefactors  to  their  fellow-men. 

MOTIVES  TO  THE  STUDY  OF  THE  SCIENCE. 

Ought  we  not  to  remember  with  gratitude,  such 
animals  as  are  hourly  removing  from  around  us,  the  causes 
of  uneasiness  or  the  elements  of  disease  1  Should  we 
avoid  the  medicinal  plant,  satisfied  as  we  may  be  of  its 
value,  on  account  of  its  fetid,  nauseating  smell,  one  of  its 
principal  characteristics,  which  renders  it  discoverable  by 
all  ?  Should  we  not  rather  regard  it  the  more  for  disclo- 
sing its  nature  to  us,  at  our  first  meeting,  while  as  yet  we, 
are  strangers'? 

I  have  said  that  the  inconveniences  suffered  from  these 
animals  deter  many  from  examining  them.  What  stronger 
argument,  I  would  ask,  can  possibly  be  offered,  why  our 
attention  should  be  directed  to  any  subject  than  this  — 
that  by  our  ignorance  of  it,  we  are  made  to  suffer  ;  and 
that  in  proportion  to  our  knowledge,  are  not  only  our  in- 
conveniences lessened,  but  our  pleasures  increased  t 
This  very  circumstance,  which  is  urged  as  an  objection, 
prompts  many  a  cultivator  of  the  soil  to  become  an  ento- 
mologist ;  and  thus  he  is  enabled,  not  only  to  prevent  the 
injuries  which  would  have  occurred  to  his  own  harvest> 
but  also  to  render  an  essential  service  to  thousands,  who 
had  previously  suffered  with  him.  If  our  persons  are  the 
objects  of  attack,  additional  motives  exist.  Not  only  will, 
our  ill-founded  fears,  as  to  the  increase  and  ravages  of  any 

VOL    i.  —  NO.  vn.  15* 


166  ENTOMOLOGY. 


particular  species  be  removed,  but  we  shall  be  able 
to  lessen  the  degree  of  temporary  inconvenience  suffered 
from  them,  and  also  to  ward  off  several  loathsome 
diseases. 

The  minuteness,  and  apparently  imperfect  formation  of 
these  animals,  undoubtedly  deter  many  from  becoming 
interested  in  their  history.  With  no  elevated  mind  could 
these  circumstances  be  regarded  as  objections  to  their 
examination.  They  would  rather  present  themselves, 
as  strong  reasons  why  this  science  should  be  pursued  — 
as  the  defects  here  would  be  the  mere  absence  of  organs 
or  powers  possessed  by  others,  destined  for  different  pur- 
poses, and  would  most  forcibly  prove  the  existence  of  a 
plan  in  which  can  be  traced  consummate  skill,  creating 
at  one  moment  the  most  complicated  of  living  beings,  — 
then  leaving  us  to  admire  and  wonder  at  the  construction 
of  objects,  the  simplicity  of  whose  formation  renders  them 
more  accessible  to  the  comprehension  of  man.  But  if  the 
absence  of  something,  which  is  essential  for  the  perform- 
ance of  necessary  operations  be  alone  a  defect,  then  no 
imperfection  can  be  pointed  at,  as  a  characteristic  of  the 
animals  whose  history  it  is  delightful  to  study.  Furnished 
with  faculties  for  the  execution  of  all  the  purposes  of  their 
existence,  no  one  can  direct  his  attention  to  them  unpre- 
judiced, without  finding  -himself  involuntarily  interested 
in  their  study :  and  when  he  discovers  them  possessed  of 
all  the  senses  he  is  blessed  with,  and  observes,  besides 
their  perfect  beauty  and  curious  external  formation,  a 
something  which  lie  at  times  almost  believes  cannot  be 
mere  instinct  —  when  he  reflects  upon  operations,  the 
magnitude  of  whose  design  can  scarcely  be  realized,  and 
whose  completion  can  hardly  be  credited,  he  is  compelled 
to  exclaim  like  a  distinguished  Roman  philosopher,  when 
examining  these  same  objects,  '  the  nature  of  things  is 
never  more  complete  than  in  the  least  things.' 

From  an  erroneous  idea  that  much  cruelty  must  neces- 
sarily be  exercised  in  the  pursuit  of  this  science,  many 
are -deterred  from  attending  to  it.  If  the  individuals  be- 
longing fcb  this  class  were  as  susceptible  of  suffering  as 
those  'oftome  other  classes,  —  and  were  it  absolutely  ne- 


ENTOMOLOGY.  167 

cessary  that  many  individuals  of  the  same  family  should 
be  destroyed  in  order  to  become  acquainted  with  their 
histories,  then  might  this  be  offered  as  an  objection.  But 
although  all  the  senses  are  possessed,  they  do  not  exist 
with  the  same  power  as  in  other  classes.  It  is  not  an  un- 
common circumstance  for  an  insect  to  leave  a  leg  in  the 
hands  of  the  entomologist,  and  not  only  fly  off  apparently 
as  joyous  as  ever,  but  in  a  moment  to  alight  and  partake 
of  its  accustomed  food.  Kirby  remarks,  '  I  have  seen 
the  common  cockchaffer  walk  about  with  apparent  in- 
difference after  some  bird  had  nearly  emptied  its  body  of 
its  viscera.  An  humble-bee  will  eat  honey  with  greediness, 
thougli  deprived  of  its  abdomen.  And  I  myself  lately 
saw  an  ant,  which  had  been  brought  out  of  the  nest 
by  its  comrades,  walk  when  deprived  of  its  ,head.  The 
head  of  a  wasp  will  attempt  to  bite  after  it  is  separated 
from  the  rest  of  the  body  ;  and  the  abdomen  under  simi- 
lar circumstances,  if  the  finger  be  moved  to  it,  will 
attempt  to  sting.'  M.  Riboud  speaks  of  a  beetle  which 
survived  fourteen  days  with  a  pin  passed  through  it, 
as  thick  as  its  thigh.  Dalyell  relates  that  a  butterfly 
lived  a  month  after  being  stuck  through  with  a  pin,  and 
after  he  thought  it  had  been  destroyed  by  sulphur.  And 
our  own  Say  tells  us,  that  he  observed  a  butterfly  feeding 
with  eagerness  after  it  had  escaped  from  him,  impaled  with 
a  pin.  Leuwerihoek  had  a  mite  which  lived  eleven  weeks, 
stuck  on  the  point  of  a  needle,  under  his  microscope. 
Vaillant,  the  African  traveller,  endeavoring  to  preserve  a 
locust,  took  out  the  intestines,  and  filled  the  abdomen 
with  cotton,  and  then  fixed  it  down  by  a  pin  through  the 
thorax  :  yet  after  five  months  the  animal  still  moved  its 
feet  and  antennae.  But  if  these  remarks  do  not  prove  this 
objection  to  be  ill-founded,  I  will  change  the  argument. 
If  suffering  should  be  borne,  —  if  a  confined  insect  should 
be  made  to  endure  agonizing  struggles,  —  if  by  its  capti- 
vity any  useful  purpose  can  be  gained,  the  entomologist 
cannot  be  called  cruel.  Cruelty  implies  the  '  unnecessary 
infliction  of  suffering,'  to  gratify  depraved  feelings;  the 
disposition  to  inflict  pain,  when  no  possible  benefit  can  be 
derived  from  such  an  act.  But  it  is  not  shown  by  pur- 
suing any  department  of  natural  history,  when  the  feel- 


168  ENTOMOLOGY. 


ings  which  prompt  us  to  study  them  are  the  most  gene- 
rous and  elevated  of  our  natures. 

Having  dwelt  upon  such  objections  as  would  most 
probably  be  offered  to  the  cultivation  of  this  science,  by 
those  who  oppose  it,  and  having  endeavored  to  show  their 
futility,  a  few  inducements  shall  be  offered  to  its  study. 

We  are  so  prone  to  avoid  whatever  at  first  sight  is  dis- 
pleasing, so  willing  to  lend  a  ready  ear  to  whatever  les- 
sens the  value  of  any  object,  so  liable  to  l>e  more  impressed 
by  the  remembrance  of  an  injury  than  the  possession  of  a 
blessing,  that  most  of  mankind  pass  by  this  noble,  eleva- 
ting study,  as  if  it  were  useless ;  and  forgetting  the  utility 
of  many  of  this  class  of  creation,  see  in  it  nothing  which 
should  employ  the  rational  mind.  These  incorrect  views 
are  removed  solely  by  observation  and  reflection.  No 
one  department  of  the  works  of  nature  exhibits  more 
powerful  motives  for  its  successful  cultivation  than  this, 
if  the  number,  variety,  beauty,  or  perfection  of  its  subjects 
be  considered.  At  all  seasons,  and  in  almost  every 
situation,  individuals  may  be  observed  belonging  to  this 
class.  The  lovers  of  other  branches  may  make  but  com- 


Jut  the  entomologist,  even  if  he  should  be  confined  to 
the  close  and  less  pure  air  of  a  city,  and  allowed  to  travel 
over  paved  streets  only,  and  this  too,  while  in  the  per- 
formance of  his  necessary  duties,  has  frequent  opportuni- 
ties of  noticing  species  with  which  previously  he  had 
been  unacquainted.  And  to  the  naturalist,  what  can  be 
more  grateful,  than  to  find,  wherever  he  may  go,  some 
new  object  to  admire,  some  fresh  incentive  to  the  pursuit 
of  his  favorite  study.  To  the  lover  of  nature,  the  argu- 
ment just  offered  will  appear  weighty.  But  I  am  well 
aware  many  will  require  stronger  reasons,  than  that  faci- 
lities exist  for  the  cultivation  of  a  science,  and  that  much 
gratification  of  feeling  is  to  be  derived  from  attending  to 
it,  ere  they  think  it  worthy  their  consideration. 

For  such,  other  reasons  can  be  offered,  strong  enough 
to  convince  any  one  of  its  advantages.  As  the  agricul- 
turist, by  a  minute  acquaintance  with  the  habits  of  this 
order  of  beings,  is  enabled  to  prevent  in  a  great  degree 
the  injuries  he  would  otherwise  inevitably  be  compelled 


ENTOMOLOGY.  169 


to  suffer,  so  is  he  restrained  from  much  useless  labor,  and 
no  little  voluntary  suffering.  He  neither  amuses  us  by 
burying  in  the  earth,  with  the  intention  of  destroying 
them,  immense  quantities  of  caterpillars  which  spend  a 
part  of  their  lives  there  ;  nor  by  cutting  down  valuable' 
trees,  to  spare  others,  because  the  insects  which  inhabit 
both,  appear  to  him  as  belonging  to  the  same  species.  He 
is  enabled  also  to  discover  that  some  of  our  most  common 
insects  are  of  much  value  to  him,  in  checking  the  increase 
of  others,  which  would  be  injurious  to  his  crgps.  An 
'acquaintance  with  this  subject  will  also  remove  many  er- 
roneous ideas  which  had  been  formed  respecting  the 
characters  of  these  individuals,  and  the  purposes  for 
which  they  were  created.  The  ticking  of  the  death- 
watch  will  no  longer  be  listened  to  with  silent  shuddering  ; 
nor  will  the  protuberance  on  the  oak  leaf  be  examined 
with  fearful  forebodings,  but  the  foetal  larva  will  be 
allowed  quietly  to  go  on  to  perfection,  whether  it  foretels 
war,  pestilence,  or  famine  ;  and  the  minutest  and  most 
neglected  insect,  when  the  purposes  of  its  existence  are 
well  known,  will  prove  how  injurious  oftentimes  are  pre- 
conceived opinions. 

IMMEDIATE    ADVANTAGES    DEUIVED  FROM  INSECTS. 

Another  reason  should  be  dwelt  upon.  The  direct  benefits 
derived  from  the  individuals  belonging  to  this  class,  should 
claim  for  them  a  greater  share  of  attention.  Well  do  1  know, 
that  all  other  arguments  which  can  be  offered,  are  slight  in 
comparison  with  this.  We  are  ever  ready  to  engage  in  a 
pursuit,  when  it  affords  a  prospect  of  remuneration,  which 
before  hardly  claimed  a  thought;  and  often  become  from 
this  cause  zealous  enthusiasts,  where  previously  we  had 
studiously  avoided  engaging  our  feelings.  And  here, 
I  would  refer  particularly  to  the  immense  profits  which 
may  be  received  from  insects,  as  articles  of  commerce. 
None,  save  those  who  have  particularly  attended  to  this 
subject,  can  for  a  moment  conceive  the  extent  of  this 
traffic.  Not  only  are  various  species  used  in  the  arts, 
but  in  some  countries  as  articles  of  food,  many  have  an 
extensive  circulation.  A  few  examples  only  shall  be  of- 
fered at  the  present  time.  To  entomology  must  we  look 
for  several  of  our  most  beautiful  and  valuable  dyes.  A 


170  ENTOMOLOGY. 


perfect  scarlet  is  obtained  from  the  same  insect  whose  se- 
cretion, under  the  name  of  Lac,  is  applied  to  so  many 
useful  purposes  ;  and  with  the  crimson  dye  of  the  Cochi- 
neal insect,  all  are  familiar.  This  insect,  the  Coccus 
Cacti,  is  a  native  of  South  America,  and  is  particularly 
cultivated  in  Mexico.  When  the  female,  which  is  alone 
valuable,  has  arrived  at  its  perfect  state,  it  fixes  itself  to 
thn  surface  of  the  leaf,  and  encloses  itself  in  a  white  cottony 
matter  which  it  secretes.  When  it  has  deposited  all  its  eggs, 
it  shrivels  and  dies  ;  but  as  its  colouring  qualities  are  thus 
destroyed,  those  who  raise  them  are  careful  to  kill  them 
before  this  time,  which  they  do  by  brushing  them  off  the 
plants,  and  applying  the  fumes  of  hot  vinegar,  or  throw- 
ing them  into  boiling  water  ;  they  are  then  dried  and  im- 
ported into  Europe.  The  cultivation  of  the  cochineal 
insect  requires  much  attention,  and  the  gathering  of 
them  also.  But  the  time  of  those  thus  occupied  is  well 
employed,  this  insect  furnishing  the  most  valuable  dye  ob- 
tained from  this  class  of  animals.  Humboldt  tells  us,  that 
the  quantity  annually  exported  from  South  America,  is 
there  worth  upwards  of  five  hundred  thousand  pounds  ster- 
ling; and  it  has  been  said  that  the  Spanish  government 
is  yearly  more  enriched  by  this  article,  than  by  the 
produce  of  all  its  gold  mines.  The  directors  of  the  East 
India  Company  offered  a  reward  of  six  thousand  pounds 
to  any  one  who  should  introduce  it  into  India.  In  com- 
merce, this  article  is  almost  always  adulterated,  different 
substances  being  mixed  with  it,  and  colored  by  it ;  and  Dr 
Paris,  in  his  Pharmacologia,  remarks,  that  a  very  consi- 
derable number  of  women  and  children  get  a  support  in 
London,  by  forming  in  moulds  made  for  that  purpose, 
particles  of  dough,  and  coloring  them  with  cochineal. 

The  Lac  insect  referred  to  above,  another  species  of 
Coccus,  lives  upon  a  species  of  Ilhamnus.  It  is  nourish- 
ed by  the  tree,  and  there  deposits  its  eggs,  -which  it 
defends  by  this  secretion,  which  also  serves  as  a  habita- 
tion for  the  perfect  insect,  and  answers  for  food  to  the 
larva.  This  lac  is  formed  into  cells,  finished  with  much 
regularity  and  art.  The  flies  are  invited  to  deposit  their 
eggs  on  the  branches  of  the  tree,  by  besmearing  them 
with  some  of  the  fresh  lac  steeped  in  water,  which  attracts 


ENTOMOLOGY.  171 


them,  and  thus  gives  a  larger  crop.  When  purified — which 
is  done  by  first  removing  the  twfgs,  leaves,  and  all  the 
foreign  substances,  then  breaking  it  into  small  pieces, 
placing  them  in  a  canvas  bag,  which  is  applied  to  the 
fire  until  the  liquid  lac  passes  through  its  pores,  when  it 
is  taken  off  the  fire  and  pressed  —  it  is  used  for  making 
sealing-wax,  beads,  rings,  and  various  ornaments. 

The  Bee  also  furnishes  an  article  of  much  importance  ; 
honey,  the  juice  of  plants,  changed  in  its  properties 
while  in  the  stomach  of  the  bee,  is  no  small  source  of  re- 
venue to  many  individuals.  Although  most  of  the  honey 
consumed  is  obtained  from  the  hive-bee,  great  quantities 
are  in  various  countries  collected  from  different  species 
of  wild  bees.  Thus,  in  South  America,  much  is  obtained 
from  nests  in  the  trunks  of  trees.  The  beautiful  rock- 
honey  is  also  the  produce  of  wild  bees,  which  form  their 
nests  to  rocks.  Large  quantities  of  hives  of  a  bee  differ- 
ing from  our  common  bee,  are  carried  to  different  situa- 
tions on  the  Nile,  as  the  food  of  the  bees  at  different 
places,  fails  them.  The  French  have  learned  a  lesson  from 
this,  and  been  profited.  As  the  flowers  decrease  at  any 
particular  spot,  compelling  the  bees  to  go  far  from  their 
hives,  the  proprietors  of  the  hives  place  them  on  a  barge 
well  covered,  and  they  pass  down  the  rivers,  collecting  the 
honey  on  the  banks.  In  Spain  the  number  of  bee-hives 
is  very  great  :  Mills  relates  that  a  single  priest  was 
known  to  possess  five  thousand  hives. 

Wax,  a  substance  which  is  secreted  from  honey,  and 
transpires  through  the  pores  of  the  skin  of  the  bee,  and 
the  article  of  which  the  bee  forms  its  comb,  is  to  some 
countries  a  source  of  great  revenue.  Thus  we  are  told, 
that  upwards  of  eightythree  thousand  pounds'  value  are 
annually  sent  from  Cuba  to  New  Spain  ;  and  that  "the  whole 
quantity  exported  from  the  same  island,  has  been  worth 
upwards  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  thousand  pounds  in  a 
year.  By  those  who  are  never  satisfied  of  the  expediency 
of  any  object,  who  would  prefer  to  receive  everything  of 
others,  rather  than  make  the  slightest  effort  themselves, 
objections  have  been  advanced  as  to  the  probability  of  our 
succeeding  in  rearing  bees  in  New  England.  Our  mild 
weather  continues  so  short  a  time,  say  they,  that  the 


172  ENTOMOLOGY. 


bees  have  time  enough  only  to  provide  a  sufficiency  for 
their  own  wants  during  the  remainder  of  the  year.  We 
ought  not  to  be  surprised  at  the  misrepresentations  of 
foreigners  respecting  our  climate,  while  we  have  so  many 
traducers  at  home;  nor  feel  irritated  at  the  insinuations 
which  would  imply  the  degeneracy  of  all  created  things 
in  a  traveller,  while  those  who  should  repel  are  so  ready 
to  give  such  errors  circulation.  That  much  may  be  done 
has  already  been  proved  in  many  of  our  States.  And  if 
at  any  particular  spots  it  is  desirable  to  establish  hives, 
previous  to  the  growth  of  such  seed  as  may  be  sown,  they 
might  be  moved  as  in  Egypt  and  France,  to  points  where 
food  may  be  found  in  great  abundance,  and  afterwards 
restored  to  the  appointed  place.  But  even  if  this  should 
be  impracticable,  and  if  the  quantity  of  honey  produced 
by  the  bees  were  but  little  besides  what  would  be  neces- 
sary for  them,  if  they  should  be  allowed  to  feed  continu- 
ally and  to  the  extent  of  their  appetites,  much  might  be 
gained  by  placing  the  hives,  after  all  the  honey  was  col- 
lected, in  situations  where  the  temperature  should  be  so 
low  as  to  render  the  bees  inactive,  and  consequently  re- 
quiring but  little  to  nourish  them,  until  the  returning 
spring. 

*  The  product  of  another   insect,  the   caterpillar  of  a 
motk,    whether    it    be    looked     upon    as    an    article  of 
commerce,  or  an  object  of  domestic  employment,  is  well 
worthy   the   attention  of  our   country.     The   raising  of 
silk- worms  engaged  the  attention  of  an  emperor  of  China, 
so  long   ago   as   twentyseven  hundred  years  before  the 
Christian  era  ;  and  an  empress  first  attended  to  the  man- 
ufacture of  silk.     This  occupation  for   a  long  time  was 
confined  to  ladies  of  the  most  elevated  standing  ;  but  gra- 
dually   became  an   employment   for    females    generally. 
After  the  quantity  of  silk  manufactured  was  sufficient  to 
clothe   all  classes  in  China,  it  was  used  as   an  article  of 
exportation,  and  was   carried  from  the  northern  parts  of 
the  Chinese  dominions  to  every  part  of  Asia.     In  555, 
two   monks  brought  from  China  in   their  hollow  staves, 

*  The  following  remarks  upon  the  silk  worm  have  been  previously 
inserted  in  a  number  of  the  Ladies'  Magazine. 


ENTOMOLOGY.  173 


silk- worms'  eggs  to  Constantinople  ;  and  thus  Europe 
first  became  possessed  of  the  power  of  raising  silk.  In 
Greece,  as  in  China,  females  of  the  first  families  com- 
menced the  care  of  silk-worms.  Next  to  Greece,  Italy 
attended  to  the  rearing  of  these  insects.  About  the  year 
1600,  Henry  IV.  introduced  the  raising  of  silk-worms 
into  France,  which  now  derives  from  their  labors 
23,560,000  francs  annually.  Although  in  1180,  silk  was 
imported  into  England  from  China,  which  was  earlier 
than  it  had  been  received  in  France,  still  nothing  of  im- 
portance was  done  towards  the  introduction  of  the  cater- 
pillar into  England,  until  within  the  last  eleven  years,  — 
two  hundred  years  after  France  had  set  the  example. 
Although  two  preceding  attempts  had  failed  to  render  the 
cultivation  of  silk  important  in  Germany,  during  the 
past  twelve  years  great  efforts  have  been  made  there,  ori- 
ginating with  the  Agricultural  Society  of  Bavaria.  Prus- 
sia and  Sweden  also,  have  not  been  idle  ;  and  in  the  for- 
mer of  these,  it  has  been  proved,  that  '  silk  equal  to  that 
of  Italy  may  be  produced,  affording  greater  profit  than 
any  other  branch  of  rural  industry  ; '  while  that  raised  in 
the  latter  country  would  show  '  that  the  silk  raised  near 
the  polar  circle,  is  equal  in  strength  and  firmness  to  any 
species  cultivated  in  more  temperate  climates.' 

The  cultivation  of  the  silk-worm  in  this  country,  is 
becoming  an  object  of  so  much  importance,  that  during 
the  year  1828,  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  ordered 
2000  copies  of  a  letter  from  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury, 
transmitting  all  the  information  which  could  be  collected 
respecting  the  cultivation  of  silk  in  the  Union,  to  be 
printed  for  the  use  of  its  members.  In  Virginia,  Georgia 
and  South  Carolina,  the  silk-worm  has  been  reared  for 
many  years.  In  1760,  silk  was  first  raised  in  Connecti- 
cut. Since  then  in  New  Hampshire,  Vermont,  Massa- 
chusetts arid  very  lately  in  Maine,  this  subject  has  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  economists.  Connecticut  has 
been  eminently  successful  in  her  efforts: — in  1825,  in 
the  town  of  Mansfield  alone,  in  that  State,  the  silk  man- 
ufactured was  three  hundred  pounds — valued  atjifteen 
thousand  dollars : — in  1826,  the  County  of  Windham 
manufactured  silk  to  the  amount  of  fiftyfour  thousand 

VOL.  i. — NO.  vii.  16 


174  ENTOMOLOGY. 


dollars.  It  is  estimated  that  five  thousand  dollars'  worth 
of  silk  is  annually  sold  in  one  County,  (Orange  County) 
in  New  York ;  and  the  whole  sale  of  this  article  in 
that  State,  is  calculated  at  fifteen  thousand  dollars. 
When  it  is  consideied  that  the  greater  part  of  the 
labor  may  be  accomplished  by  females  and  children, 
and  that  it  is  not  only  a  healthful  exercise,  but  an  agree- 
able amusement,  it  will  be  thought  not  a  little  surprising, 
that  we  are  so  willing  and  ready  to  import  silk  from 
abroad. • 

A  GENERAL    VIEW  OP    THE    INJURIES    AND    BENEFITS    PRO- 
DUCED BY  EACH  ORDER  OP  INSECTS. 

But  perhaps  many  might  be  persuaded  to  engage  in 
the  study  of  entomology,  if  the  benefits  derived  from, 
and  the  injuries  produced  by  each  order  of  insects,  were 
exhibited  in  a  general  manner,  that  they  might  be  readily 
compared. 

The  first  order  is  called  Coleoptera,  from  the  Greek 
words  koleos,  a  sheath  —  and pier  on,  a  wing —  referring  to 
the  strong  elytra  or  external  wings,  which  protect  the 
true  wings.  Among  the  genera  of  this  order  which  are 
most  common,  are  the  beetle,  stag-beetle,  carrion-bug, 
weevil,  lady-bird,  blistering-fly,  water-beetle,  &c,  &c. 
From  the  ravages  of  the  first  order  of  insects,  man 
suffers  extremely:  —  although  our  persons  are  incom- 
moded as  little  perhaps  by  the  animals  belonging  to 
this  order,  as  either  of  the  other  orders,  still  the  ob- 
jects by  which  we  are  surrounded,  those  necessary  to 
our  subsistence,  as  well  as  articles  of  luxury  and  ease,  are 
all  subject  to  their  depredations. 

But  if  the  many  are  not  useful,  the  few  are  of  infinite 
value.  Decomposing  substances,  while  they  are  removed 
from  our  view,  are  carried  by  these  animals  |into  the 
earth,  and  thereby  tend  to  enrich  vegetation.  Noxious 
generlt  are  held  in  detestation  by  others,  which  offer  us 
no  molestation,  while  some  species  afford  subsistence  to 
others.  Thus  the  Aphides,  the  small  flies,  or  (as  they 
are  generally  called)  lice,  so  common  upon  many  of  our 
plants,  are  in  some  seasons  devoured  in  immense  quanti- 
ties by  our  beautiful  lady-birds  ;  and  the  females  of  the 
cockchaffer,  one  of  the  most  infurious  of  the  tribe  to  the 


ENTOMOLOGY.  1 75 


agriculturist,  are  destroyed  at  the  moment  they  are 
most  to  be  dreaded,  by  the  genus  of  Ground-beetles.  Nor 
do  these  afford  sustenance  to  animals  of  the  same  scien- 
tific class  alone.  Our  native  birds,  those  which  follow  on 
wherever  cultivation  is,  —  whose  delightful  notes  meet 
the  ear  at  the  rising  of  the  sun,  —  whose  melody  cheers 
the  husbandman  fatigued  at  noonday,  —  and  by  whose 
evening  concerts  the  pure  heart  is  elevated  and  enrap- 
tured, —  which  teach  us  a  glorious  lesson  of  confidence, 
by  rearing  and  educating  their  young  at  our  very  doors — 
these  also  are  provided  for  by  the  existence  of  noxious 
insects  :  —  and  little  does  he  study  his  own  interest, 
whose  selfishness  causes  their  destruction.  Other  ani- 
mals also  feed  upon  insects.  I  am  not  compelled  to  go 
back  to  the  Romans,  to  speak  of  their  larvae  fattened  to 
glut  the  appetites  of  epicures ;  nor  to  point  to  the  Afri- 
can greedily  devouring  his  roasted  caterpillar,  while  the 
larvae  of  one  of  the  largest  species  of  beetle,  is  at  the 
present  day  an  article  of  luxury  with  many  in  South 
America,  and  is  served  up  at  the  tables  of  some  of  the 
most  wealthy  inhabitants  of  the  West  India  islands.  But 
from  no  insect  belonging  to  this  order,  I  might  almost 
have  said  this  class,  do  we  derive  so  much  benefit  as 
from  the  genus  Melre,  in  which  is  found  the  blistering- 
fly.  The  blistering,  or  as  it  is  called  in  commerce,  the 
Spanish-fly,  is  found  in  large  quantities  in  the  South  of 
Europe  ;  and  is  particularly  abundant  in  Spain.  They 
are  collected  from  the  leaves  of  different  trees  in  summer, 
and  are  afterwards  destroyed  by  the  fumes  of  vinegar, 
and  dried  in  the  sun ;  when  applied  externally  to  the 
human  body,  they  act  as  a  powerful  vesicatory  ;  when 
given  internally,  as  a  stimulant  of  great  efficacy.  In 
many  derangements  of  the  system,  they  are,  in  the  hands 
of  the  judicious  practitioner,  the  means  of  preserving  many 
of  our  race.  When  exhibited  by  the  ignorant  empiric, 
they  are  not  unfrequently  productive  of  the  most  severe 
sufferings  and  lamentable  deaths.  Our  common  potato-fly 
is  one  of  this  genus  of  insects,  and  while  it  possesses  all 
the  virtues  of  the  Spanish-fly,  it  does  not  produce  the  bad 
symptoms,  which  often  attend  the  employment  of  that 
remedy :  and  Professor  Barton  of  Philadelphia,  after 


176  ENTOMOLOGY 

employing  both  for  a  long  time  in  his  practice,  gave  the 
preference  to  our  native  fly.  It  however  cannot  be  col- 
lected here  in  sufficient  quantities  to  supply  the  demand, 
and  consequently  is  not  so  much  used  as  the  foreign  in- 
sect. The  active  virtues  of  the  Blistering-fly,  depend 
upon  the  existence  of  a  principle,  which  has  obtained  the 
name  of  Canlharidin. 

The  second  order,  is  named  Ifcmiptera,  from  emisu, 
the  half,  and  pteron,  a  wing.  Tiie  outer  wings  of  this 
order,  are  semicoriaceous  :  they  are  not  so  strong  as  those 
of  the  first  order,  but  more  so  than  the  remaining  orders. 
This  includes  the  cockroach,  locust,  lantern-fly,  wa- 
ter-scorpion, bug-plant,  louse,  &c,  &.c.  The  1st  genus, 
as  arranged  by  Linnaeus,  is  the  cockroach :  this  is  an 
extremely  troublesome  animal,  not  only  destroying  our 
articles  of  food,  but  in  many  cases,  our  garments  and 
books.  By  the  ravages  of  the  Aphis,  or  plant-louse, 
whole  crops  are  often  destroyed ;  our  esculents  arid  valu- 
able plants;  our  fruit  trees,  as  well  as  those  of  our  woods, 
are  all  injured  by  this  insect :  by  suction,  it  abstracts 
from  the  tender  shoot  its  nutriment,  and  blasts  the  leaf 
by  its  peculiar  secretion.  This  secretion  is  sometimes 
enormous  ;  and  not  only  by  its  quantity  completely  encases 
the  plant,  but  by  its  saccharine  nature,  affords  a  resting 
place  for  noxious  insects.  The  cocci  also,  which  look 
like  protuberances  upon  the  stalks  of  plants,  do  consid- 
erable injury  by  drawing  off  the  sap,  and  thus  destroying 
life.  To  refer  to  any  more  genera  of  this  order,  would 
be  needless.  It  is  time  to  turn  to  those  of  this  order 
which  are  of  value  to  us.  In  speaking  of  the  advan- 
tages derived  from  many  insects  of  the  preceding 
order,  I  referred  to  some  which  kept  other  species  in 
check,  by  subsisting  upon  them.  In  this  order  we  find 
the  Mantis  tribe ;  those  whose  peculiar  appearance  has 
given  the  idea  of  sanctity,  one  of  the  most  ferocious  tribes 
of  insects,  even  carrying  there  animosities  so  far  as  to 
destroy  each  other.  But  to  the  coccus  are  we  to  look, 
as  the  most  valuable  genus  of  this  order,  By  a  species 
of  this  genus,  is  produced  the  Pe-la,  or  white  wax  of 
China.  The  Chinese  cherish  these  insects  by  stocking 
some  species  of  trees  with  them.  This  secretion  begins 


ENTOMOLOGY.  177 


to  appear  about  the  commencement  of  summer,  and  is  col- 
lected in  the  autumn.  This  wax  is  used  by  the  nobility, 
and  also  by  public  speakers,  to  excite  them.  To  the  Lac, 
and  also  to  the  Cochineal  Coccus,  I  have  referred  above. 
Besides  the  dying  property  of  the  Cochineal  Coccus, 
while  many  unhesitatingly  deny  it  any  medicinal  virtues, 
it  is  still  employed  by  numerous  physicians  of  experience 
and  eminence,  as  a  stimulant  medicine. 

Like  the  larva?  of  the  preceding  order,  some  of  the 
individuals  belonging  to  this,  are  used  as  articles  of  food. 
That  genus  which  has  often  produced  such  extensive 
suffering,  the  locust,  has  in  many  countries  had  its 
devourers.  At  Mecca,  in  times  of  famine,  they  have 
been  ground  up  and  mixed  with  flour  for  cakes :  in 
Greece,  and  the  Barbary  powers,  they  have  been  an  ar- 
ticle of  merchandize  ;  and  the  Hottentots,  although  their 
vegetation  may  be  ruined,  joyously  fatten  themselves  upon 
cooked  locusts. 

The  third  order  is  composed  of  such  insects  as  have 
their  wings  covered  with  scales.  This  is  called  Lepi- 
doptera,  from  lepis,  a  scale.  Three  genera  only  are  in- 
cluded in  this  order.  The  butterfly,  hawkmoth  and 
moth.  The  individuals  of  this  order  are  the  most  beau- 
tiful of  the  class,  and  often  claim  the  admiration  of  those 
who  would  absurdly  cherish  for  others  an  inexplicable 
disgust.  Few  as  are  the  genera  belonging  to  this  order, 
their  ravages  are  far  from  being  slight ; — their  advantages 
are  far  from  unimportant — although  the  caterpillars  of  the 
1st  genus,  Papilio,  the  butterfly,  are  sometimes  slightly 
pernicious,  to  the  other  genera,  the  moth  and  hawk- 
moth,  we  are  to  look  principally  for  the  causes  of  our 
injuries.  A  species  of  moth  does  incredible  mischief  in 
some  seasons  to  grass.  We  are  told  that  about  half  a 
century  since,  the  fields  of  Sweden  were  rendered  quite 
dry  by  these,  as  if  a  fire  had  passed  over  them.  A 
small  species  of  moth  destroys  our  grain  ;  our  vege- 
tables also  suffer  from  their  inroads ;  while  others 
destroy  the  bark,  and  leaves,  and  blossoms  of  our 
fruit  trees.  Many  forests  also,  in  our  country,  have  thus 
been  seriously  injured.  The  foliage  being  removed  when 
the  heat  was  very  great,  the  unsheltered  trunks  have 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  vn.         16* 


178  ENTOMOLOGY. 


yielded  up  their  lives.  The  vine,  too,  is  often  entirely 
destroyed  by  a  caterpillar  of  this  genus,  on  the  borders  of 
the  Black  Sea :  as  soon  as  the  buds  open,  they  eat  them 
off,  especially  the  fruit  buds,  and  devour  the  germ  of 
the  grape  :  two  or  three  of  these  caterpillars  will  so  injure 
a  vine,  by  passing  from  one  germ  to  another,  that  it  will 
bear  no  fruit  the  next  year.  But  their  depredations  are 
.  not  confined  to  the  vegetable  kingdom.  The  larvae  of 
several  species  of  moths  do  much  injury  to  the  hive  bee  ; 
inclosing  themselves  in  tubes  of  wax,  they  dwell  there, 
unmindful  of  the  bees.  Our  farmers  have  been  almost 
discouraged  some  seasons,  by  the  depredations  of  a  moth, 
which  utterly  ruins  their  hives,  and  which  has  obtained 
the  name  generally,  of  the  bee-moth.  As  however,  it  is 
ascertained  that  the  perfect  insect  deposits  its  eggs  only 
in  clear  dry  spots,  it  is  thought  the  evil  may,  in  a  great 
measure,  be  removed,  by  placing  the  hives  upon  the 
ground,  or  strewing  earth  to  the  depth  of  several  inches 
upon  their  floors.  Experiments  lead  us  to  hope  much 
will  be  gained  by  this  method  of  hiving.  Nor  are  in- 
sects the  only  animals  affected — man  himself  is  not 
wholly  exempt  from  their  attacks.  We  are  told  by  Azara, 
that  in  South  America,  there  is  a  large  brown  moth, 
which  deposits  its  eggs  in  a  kind  of  saliva,  upon  the  flesh 
of  persons  sleeping  naked  ;  introducing  themselves  under 
the  skin  without  being  perceived,  they  occasion  swelling, 
accompanied  by  much  pain  and  inflammation.  Although 
the  caterpillars  of  this  order  are,  among  the  Chinese,  and 
the  inhabitants  of  New  Holland,  an  article  of  food,  and 
are  considered  by  the  Moors  one  of  their  greatest  deli- 
cacies, our  chief  advantage  is  derived  from  individuals 
of  the  third  genus,  Phalena — the  moth — and  from  that 
species  particularly,  which  subsists  upon  the  white  mul- 
berry tree,  and  supplies  us  with  silk. 

Insects  having  four  membranaceous,  naked  wings, 
reticulated  with  veins,  or  in  which  the  membranes  look 
like  net  work,  make  up  the  fourth  order,  which  is  called 
Ncuroptcra,  from  neuron — a  nerve.  The  dragon-fly,  may- 
fly, and  spring-fly,  are  among  the  genera  of  this  order. 
Although  the  benefits  received  from  this  order  are  of  less 
magnitude  than  those  derived  from  several  others,  the 


ENTOMOLOGY.  171) 


injuries  suffered  from  its  subjects  are  unimportant,  arid 
I  might  say,  unknown.  The  voracious  and  tyrannical 
dragon-fly,  may  perhaps  destroy  in  its  fury  many  species 
of  insects,  which  are  of  value  to  the  husbandman  ;  but  as 
its  instinct  prom  [its  it  to  feed  upon  many  noxious  species, 
it  ought  perhaps  to  be  regarded  as  a  blessing,  rather  than 
a  curse.  The  next  genus,  Ephemera,  the  spring-fly,  al- 
though its  existence  is  continued  but  a  day,  affords  a 
valuable  substitute  to  many  farmers  in  Europe  for  manure. 
Scopoli,  the  historian  of  the  insects  of  Carniola,  remarks 
that  the  peasants  in  his  neighborhood  are  dissatisfied,  un- 
less they  can  individually,  collect  at  the  times  of  their 
appearance,  at  least  twenty  cart  loads,  to  strew  over 
their  grounds.  The  Hemerobius,  or  golden-eye,  in  its 
larvae  state,  is  of  great  value  also,  in  the  destruction  of  the 
Aphides,  or  plant-lice. 

The  fifth  order  has  four  membranaceous,  naked  wings, 
and  is  called  Hymeno/itera,  from  wnen,  a  membrane.  This 
order  has  been  ranked  at  the  head  of  the  class  by  some 
naturalists,  on  account  of  their  admirable  economy.  The 
gall-fly,  saw-fly,  ichneumon-fly,  wasp,  bee  and  ant, 
are  arranged  by  Linnaeus,  in  this  order  of  insects.  Some 
genera  are  extremely  injurious,  while  others  are  of  im- 
mense value. 

The  Cynips,  or  gall-fly,  when  its  larvae  are  deposited 
in  unusual  numbers  upon  a  leaf,  must  detract  largely  from 
its  nourishment :  consequently,  whole  trees  may,  in  some 
seasons,  suffer  from  their  presence.  The  second  genus, 
Tenthredo,  commonly  called  saw-fly,  is  the  most  dreaded 
insect  of  this  order — its  vulgar  name  is  derived  from  the 
instrument  by  which  it  makes  an  incision,  in  a  leaf;  this 
instrument,  is  a  double  saw,  which  in  using,  the  insect 
first  throws  out  one,  then  the  other  alternately,  until  a 
sufficient  incision  is  made;  when  they  are  both  retracted, 
and  the  egg  is  deposited  from  between  them.  Although 
the  larvae  of  this  genus  generally  feed  on  the  rose,  and 
the  willow  tree,  our  grain,  vegetables  and  fruit  trees,  have 
been  at  times,  seriously  injured.  One  species  of  these 
larvae,  which  has  received  the  name  of  slug-worm,  and 
which  has  been  admirably  described,  its  changes  and  its 
injuries,  by  the  late  Professor  Peck,  in  a  volume  of  the 


180  ENTOMOLOGY. 


papers  of  the  Massachusetts  Agricaltural  Society,  caused 
serious  alarm  in  this  country,  about  thirty  years  since.  At 
that  time,  some  of  our  most  valuable  trees  were  com- 
pletely stripped  of  their  leaves,  and  the  crops  of  the  suc- 
ceeding years  blasted  by  their  ravages.  I  will  not  speak 
of  the  stings  of  the  bee,  nor  the  wasp,  nor  the  Ichneumon- 
fly,  for  although  I,  with  others,  may  have  suffered  from 
their  venom,  the  suffering  was  deserved,  and  I  am  in- 
clined to  believe,  that  in  almost  every  case,  in  which 
injuries  are  produced  by  these  insects,  they  act  on  the 
defensive. 

This  order  of  insects  is  extremely  important.  If  the 
injuries  produced  by  them  have  been  minutely  detailed, 
obligations  for  benefits  received  shall  be  as  readily  ac- 
knowledged. And  here,  as  strongly,  perhaps,  as  in  any 
order  of  nature,  do  we  observe  the  necessity  of  under- 
standing perfectly  the  character  of  an  individual  before 
we  decide  upon  merits  —  of  reflecting  upon  the  ends  of 
actions,  before  we  think  of  them  as  worse  than  useless. 
Thus  the  protuberances  upon  our  leaves,  produced  by 
the  gall-fly,  while  they  disfigure  them,  and  in  some  in- 
stances greatly  injure  the  tree,  thus  causing  vexation  to 
the  possessors,  not  only  are  eaten  as  delicacies  by  the 
inhabitants  of  the  Levant,  and  form  a  considerable  article 
of  commerce  at  Constantinople,  where,  preserved,  they 
are  exposed  for  sale,  but  they  also  furnish  us  with  a 
valuable  dyeing  material ;  and  what  is  of  still  greater  im- 
portance, we  are  indebted  to  them  for  the  means  of  form- 
ing ink. 

The  ant,  too — little  do  we  think,,  when  incommoded  by 
this  genus,  that  any  of  its  species  are  important  to  man  : 
but  we  find,  upon  reflection,  that  the  anatomist  entrusts 
his  nicest  dissections  to  the  inmates  of  an  ant-hill,  with 
perfect  confidence  in  their  skill.  The  cockroach  in 
Ceylon,  is  destroyed  by  a  species  of  ant  —  and  in  the 
eighth  volume  of  the  Quarterly  Journal  of  Science,  Liter- 
ature and  the  Arts,  is  a  very  interesting  paper  by  a  Capt. 
Bagnald,  who  says,  while  in  the  West-Indies,  he  had 
repeated  opportunities  of  watching  the  movements  of 
these  insects ;  he  saw  them  often  destroy  spiders  and 
cockroaches,  and  upon  one  occasion,  he  observed  them 


ENTOMOLOGY.  181 


encounter  a  centipede,  which,  however,  they  did  not  put 
to  death,  until  they  had  completely  encrusted  him ;  and 
though  in  the  conflict,  thousands  of  them  were  destroyed, 
they  finally  killed  him.  Nor  are  these  all  the  advan- 
tages derived  from  them  :  a  low  priced  brandy  is  made  in 
Sweden,  of  rye  and  ants  —  these  insects  supplying  a 
resin,  an  oil,  and  an  acid.  And  in  that  country,  they 
are  not  unfrequently  eaten  uncooked,  for  their  acid  taste  ; 
the  devourers  first  plucking  off  their  heads  and  wings. 
The  ichneumon-fly  is  of  essential  service,  in  depositing 
its  eggs,  in  the  eggs  or  as  yet  imbecile  larvae  —  or  by 
checking  the  progress  of  the  powerful  and  voracious 
caterpillar.  The  sphex,  or  ichneumon-wasp,  is  a  de- 
stroyer of  the  cockroach ;  wasps  destroy  for  us  immense 
quantities  of  flies  —  and  in  the  interior  of  New  England, 
their  paper  nests  are  used  in  affections  of  the  lungs. — 
What  their  virtues  are,  the  writer  knows  not :  the  sub- 
stance by  which  they  unite  the  particles  of  their  nests 
together  may  perhaps  be  of  a  stimulating  quality,  and 
thus  be  enabled  to  relieve  the  existing  stricture.  But  the 
Bee,  which  has  been  already  dwelt  upon,  is  the  most 
valuable  insect  of  this  order. 

If  in  speaking  of  the  order  Neuroptera,  it  was  remark- 
ed that  the  injuries  they  produced  were  of  but  small  con- 
sideration, I  must  here  notice  an  order,  in  which  but 
little  obvious  advantage  is  perceived,  to  compensate  for 
its  powers  of  annoyance. 

The  sixth  order  of  Insects  is  called  Diptcra — from  dis, 
twice,  or  double ;  they  having  but  two  wings.  In  this 
order,  we  find  the  various  kinds  of  flics  and  the  musquitto  ; 
here  we  observe  not  only  genera  which  attack  our  provi- 
sions arid  ruin  them,  which  harass,  and  render  furious 
our  cattle,  and  horses,  and  flocks,  but  also  those  which 
avoid  less  palatable  food,  to  regale  themselves  with  the 
blood  of  man.  The  first  genus,  GEstrus,  the  gad-fly, 
is  the  most  troublesome,  which  affects  our  domestic  ani- 
mals. The  gad-fly  of  the  ox,  deposits  its  eggs  in  the 
body  of  that  animal,  and  thus  the  larvae  are  provided  for, 
during  the  whole  winter.  You  may  imagine  how  trouble- 
some such  an  insect  must  be  to  the  animal,  particularly 
if  it  should  suffer  from  indisposition  after  the  deposition 


182  ENTOMOLOGY. 

of  the  egg.  Another  species,  by  irritating  the  lips  of  the 
horse  in  its  endeavors  to  deposit  its  eggs  there,  renders 
the  animal  almost  ungovernable:  while  the  larvae  of  a 
third  species,  hatching  in  the  stomach  of  this  animal  from 
eggs  introduced  by  its  tongue,  produce  a  disease,  often- 
times severe,  and  which  receives  its  name  from  the  larva? 
which  produce  it.  Our  inoffensive  flocks  too,  are  com- 
pelled to  sutler  from  a  species  of  gad-fly,  which,  deposit- 
ing its  eggs  in  the  nostrils  of  the  animal,  feeds  in  the 
larvae  state  upon  the  delicate  membrane  there,  causing 
extreme  distress,  and  not  unfrequently,  by  insinuating 
itself  into  the  brain,  produces  death.  But  these  are 
not  the  only  sufferers:  not  only  does  a  species  of  gad- 
fly deposit  its  eggs  in  the  abdomen  of  man,  causing  great 
irritation  and  suffering,  in  the  torrid  zone,  but  in  some 
cases,  even  destroys  life.  The  larvae  of  the  second  genus, 
Tipula,  the  crane-fly,  in  some  seasons,  do  much  injury 
to  grass,  wheat  and  corn,  by  burrowing  in  their  roots. 
With  the  inconveniences  of  the  third  genus,  Musca,  the 
fly,  all  must  be  conversant :  by  this  genus,  our  articles 
of  luxury  are  tarnished,  our  provisions  destroyed,  our 
persons  molested,  —  while  some  species,  not  satisfied  with 
one  substance,  attack  all  provisions  which  may  be  gather- 
ed for  use  by  the  husbandman :  others  are  abroad,  de- 
positing the  seeds  of  ruin  in  our  grain,  disappointing  the 
hard  working  agriculturist.  One  species,  a  few  years 
since  in  this  country,  from  its  ravages  in  our  wheat  fields, 
caused  no  common  alarm.  Nor  is  it  to  be  wondered  at, 
that  the  Hessian-fly  should  now  be  thought  of  with  terror, 
when  it  is  remembered,  that  it  not  only  attacked  this 
grain  as  soon  as  it  began  to  grow,  and  destroyed  every 
part  of.it,  but  also  by  depositing  its  eggs  in  the  stem,  so 
weakened  it,  as  to  prevent  the  ear  from  ripening.  An- 
other genus,  Tabanus,  the  whame-fly,  is  at  times  very 
troublesome.  The  horse  is  a  principal  sufferer  from  their 
attacks — although  in  Africa,  the  inhabitants  of  whole 
counties  are  compelled  to  emigrate  yearly  to  the  locations 
of  sand,  to  prevent  their  cattle  from  being  destroyed  by 
the  attacks  of  this  insect.  The  Culex,  or  gnat,  remains 
to  be  noticed — the  greatest  plague  of  this  order.  Annoy- 
ing as  the  musquitto  is  to  us,  when  travelling  in  the  vicin- 


ENTOMOLOGY.  183 


ity  of  marshes,  or  when  our  rooms  are  lighted  during  the 
evenings  of  summer  —  we  have  but  little  reason  for  com- 
plaint, when  we  observe  their  ravages  in  other  countries. 
It  is  said  that  in  South  America,  soldiers  are  sometimes 
forced  to  sleep  with  their  heads  thrust  into  holes  in  the 
earth,  made  with  their  bayonets,  and  to  wrap  round  their 
necks  their  hammocks  ;  that  a  king  of  Persia,  his  army 
having  been  completely  exhausted  by  these  insects,  has 
been  compelled  to  raise  the  siege  of  cities  :  that  the  Lap- 
lander is  barely  able  to  exist,  with  every  means  of  defence 
he  can  employ  ;  and  that  the  Russian  soldier,  although 
sleeping  in  a  sack,  is  not  always  able  to  live  under  such 
excessive  irritation.  And  for  all  the  sufferings  expe- 
rienced from  this  order,  decomposing  matter  is  removed 
by  the  infinite  tribe  of  flies,  which  on  every  side  surrounds 
us.  The  larvae  of  one  species,  the  inmate  of  putrid 
cheese,  is  a  delicious  repast  fur  the  refined  epicure  ;  and 
it  is  conjectured  that  the  larva?  of  the  gad  fly,  which  «- 
haust  the  poor  horse,  are  in  some  cases,  a  gentle  and 
beneficial  stimulant. 

The  seventh  and  last  order,  is  called  Jlpicra — from  a, 
primitive,  andptcron,  wing,  and  includes  all  such  insects 
as  want  wings,  in  either  sex.  This  order  includes  the 
Lepismae,  commonly  called  moths  ;  Termites,  or  white- 
ants  ;  Pedicalus,  the  louse  ;  Palex,  the  flea  ;  &c,  &c. 
The  termites  or  white-ants,  are  extremely*  numerous  in 
warm  countries,  and  very  destructive,  although  wood  is 
their  common  food ;  clothes,  furniture,  books,  and  almost 
all  manufactured  articles,  are  ruined  by  them.  They 
curiously  avoid  injuring  the  exterior  of  substances,  while 
they  are  destroying  all  within  ;  houses  are  ruined  by  them  ; 
and  when  vessels  are  so  unfortunate  as  to  receive  any  on 
board  of  them,  much  injury  is  suffered.  The  genus 
Pediculus,  louse,  is  very  extensive.  There  is  scarcely 
an  animal  or  vegetable,  that  does  not  suffer  from  its  own 
peculiar  louse.  Our  domestic  animals,  as  well  as  birds, 
fishes,  plants,  all  have  their  lice — to  man,  it  is  extremely 
troublesome  :  but  as  it  has  been  ascertained  that  the  in- 
convenience is  merely  external  irritation,  we  ought  per- 
haps to  consider  it  in  the  light  of  a  proper  reward  for 
those  who  cherish  them  ;  as  rarely,  any  one  is  annoyed, 


184  ENTOMOLOGY. 


unless  really  deserving  of  their  attacks.  The  Pulex,  or 
flea,  and  Acarus,  or  mite,  are  also  included  in  this  order, 
and  are  extremely  troublesome. 

Although  other  slight  benefits  have  been  derived  from 
several  genera,  the  insects  of  this  order  appear  to  be 
most  extensively  employed  as  articles  of  food. 

It  would  be  almost  useless  to  mention  any  of  the  dis- 
tinct and  individual  cases  of  this  singular  propensity ; 
although  they  might  be  pointed  at,  among  the  most  polish- 
ed nations  of  Europe ;  because  they  would  be  considered 
perversions  of  taste,  when  the  inhabitants  of  extensive 
tracts  of  country  offer  themselves  as  examples.  The 
people  of  New  Caledonia  eat  immense  quantities  of 
spiders  ;  and  all  who  have  ever  read  of  the  Hottentots  and 
Esquimaux  Indians,  must  have  been  disgusted  with  their 
meals  of  lice. 

In  the  compilation  of  fhe  above  Tract,  the  system  of 
Linnaeus  the  Swede,  has  been  followed,  on  account  of  its 
conciseness,  principally.  The  entomologist  will  at  once 
perceive,  that  4  was  prepared  for  the  general  reader,  and 
not  for  him  who  woulrl  be  satisfied  only  with  the  more 
elaborate  classifications  of  the  great  French  naturalists. 


SCIENTIFIC   TRACTS. 

NUMBER  VIII. 


FOREST     TREES. 


EVERY  day  brings  new  and  animating  proof,  that  Natu- 
ral History  is  rapidly  advancing  to  take  the  place  its 
importance  claims,  as  a  branch  of  common  educatioTi. 
Infant  schools  owe  their  uniform  and  distinguished 
success,  in  no  small  degree,  to  the  use  of  specimens, 
pictures,  and  other  illustrations,  to  exhibit  and  explain 
the  different  departments  of  nature.  The  representation 
and  description  of  animals  are  equally  favorable  to  the 
gratification  of  the  feelings  of  children,  and  to  the  de- 
velopment of  their  intellectual  and  moral  faculties.  Geo- 
logy, when  illustrated  with  specimens,  furnishes  a  most 
delightful  exercise  to  young  minds,  and  is  already  intro- 
duced into  most  infant  schools,  and  is  rapidly  finding  its 
way  into  elementary  schools  of  every  grade. 

In  behalf  of  the  science  last  mentioned,  it  is  truly  gra- 
tifying to  learn  from  various  sections  of  the  country, 
that  the  second  number  of  this  series  of  Tracts,  which 
treats  of  Geology,  is  coming  fully  up  to  its  design,  in 
acting  an  humble  but  efficient  part,  in  bringing  its  subject 
in  a  most  attractive  form,  into  schools  and  families.  We 
are  informed  from  various  sources,  that  it  is  leading  young 
people,  and  even  children,  to  convert  their*  walks  and 
rambles  into  exercises  for  useful  instruction,  by  exam- 
ining and  collecting  specimens  of  rocks  and  other  min- 
erals, which  they  find  to  be  scattered  around  them,  with 
a  profusion,  variety,  richness,  and  beauty,  of  which  they 
had  never  formed  a  conjecture.  While  these  collections 
VOL.  i.  —  NO.  vnr.  17 


186  FOREST    TREES. 


furnish  a  most  salutary  exercise  for  the  physical,  intel- 
lectual, and  moral  development  of  those  who  make  them 
they  add  in  no  small  degree  to  the  resources  and  wealth 
of  our  country,  by  bringing  to  view  its  hidden  treasures. 

When  it  is  known  that  our  earth  is  adorned  and  en- 
riched by  sixty  thousand  different  species  of  plants,  ren- 
dered attractive  by  an  endless  variety,  the  most  delicate 
shades  of  beauty,  and  frequently  by  their  lofty  and  ma- 
jestic appearance,  as  well  as  their  various  uses,  it  cannot 
be  denied  or  doubted  that  the  vegetable  kingdom,  no  less 
than  the  animal  and  mineral,  contains  a  vast  store-house 
of  materials,  well  fitted  to  enliven  the  imagination,  invig- 
orate the  understanding,  and  warm  and  purify  the  hearts 
of  the  thousands  of  the  sprightly  intelligences  constantly 
blooming  into  youth,  or  ripening  into  manhood.  Ve- 
getables, by  the  variety  of  their  species,  the  curious  work- 
manship of  their  structure,  the  richness  of  their  verdure, 
the  beauty  and  fragrance  of  the  flowers,  and  the  constant 
and  abundant  supply  they  furnish  to  the  wants  of  man 
and  beast,  present  a  boundless  and  exhaustless  field  for 
the  cultivation,  improvement,  and  elevation  of  the  intel- 
lectual and  moral  kingdom  of  our  Creator,  for  which  his 
whole  material  universe  was  designed.  Every  plant, 
from  the  humblest  vine  that  creeps  upon  the  earth,  or 
the  most  uncomely  moss  that  hangs  upon  the  wall,  to  the 
stately  and  majestic  oak  that  towers  in  the  forest,  fully 
proves  the  divinity  of  the  hand  which  made  it,  by  a 
striking  and  wonderful  display  of  wisdom,  power,  and 
goodness,  which  far  surpasses  everything  human. 

If  such  is  the  character  of  the  vegetable  kingdom,  the 
adoption  of  the  science  which  treats  of  it,  as  a  branch 
of  common  instruction,  must  be  a  necessary  consequence 
of  enlarged  and  appropriate  views  of  the  subject  of 
education.  We  hence  find  that  in  most  schools  where 
instruction  is  given  under  the  most  enlightened  and  ra- 
tional views,  and  upon  the  largest  and  most  liberal  plan, 
the  science  of  botany  forms  an  essential  part  of  the 
course.  It  is  already  introduced  into  numerous  schools, 
especially  female  seminaries,  besides  the  instruction 
extensively  given  in  the  form  of  lectures,  to  classes  col- 
lected particularly  for  the  purpose. 


FOREST    TREES.  187 

But  from  some  cause,  which  perhaps  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult to  explain,  one  subject  of  botany  has  hitherto  been 
almost  wholly  neglected,  both  by  teachers  and  the  ama- 
teurs of  science. 

American  forest  trees,  which  foreigners  inform  us,  con- 
stitute the  grandest  department  of  the  vegetable  king- 
dom, have  been  doomed  to  a  strange  and  unwarranted 
neglect,  unless  indeed  it  is  to  sweep  them  by  an  almost 
sacrilegious  hand,  with  all  their  richness  and  majestic 
grandeur  from  the  earth,  which  groans  under  their 
weight.  The  towering  oak,  which  all  ages,  and  even 
barbarians  have  acknowledged  to  be  the  monarch  of 
their  forests,  capable  of  enduring  the  buffeting  tempests 
of  a  thousand  winters,  has  been  less  studied  and  is  less 
understood  by  the  lovers  of  science,  especially  in  our  own 
country,  than  the  rarest,  humblest,  and  most  useless 
plant,  which  some  barren  knoll  supports  for  a  few  days 
or  weeks,  with  a  frail  and  meagre  form,  but  suffers  it  to 
wither,  die,  and  disappear  by  the  force  of  the  genial  rays 
of  the  sun  for  half  a  season. 

Why  our  own  majestic  forests  should  be  thus  neglected 
and  abused,  while  the  less  stately  groves  of  other  nations 
and  other  ages  have  been  subjects  of  general  interest, 
and  sometimes  of  adoration,  we  shall  not  undertake  to 
explain.  But  such  is  the  fact. 

It  does  not  speak  well  for  the  science,  the  taste,  or  the 
good  sense  of  Americans,  that  the  best,  and  almost 
only  description  of  their  forest  trees  which  has  come  to 
the  public,  is  from  the  hands  of  Europeans.  Two  gen- 
tlemen from  France,  by  the  name  of  Michaux,  first  the 
father  and  afterwards  the  son,  crossed  the  Atlantic  for 
the  express  purpose  of  examining  our  forests,  which  they 
ranged  from  Canada  to  Mexico.  They  not  only  exa- 
mined our  trees  with  the  eyes  of  botanists,  and  under  the 
enthusiasm  of  the  lovers  of  science,  but  as  men  of  busi- 
ness and  common  sense,  they  visited  ship-yards,  work- 
shops, and  other  places  where  they  would  be  likely  lo  learn 
by  observation  and  from  inquiries  of  tliose  who  worked 
or  used  the  timber  they  furnish,  what  are  their  properties 
and  uses. 

The  fruits  of  the  science  and  researches  of  these  two 


188  FOREST    TREES. 


intelligent  and  sensible  Frenchmen,  were  several  splen- 
did volumes,  which  by  full  and  practical  descriptions  of 
our  forest  trees,  illustrated  by  splendid  engravings, 
do  no  little  credit  to  the  skill  of  their  artists,  while 
of  their  own  science,  good  sense,  and  ardor  in  the 
promotion  of  rational  improvement,  they  will  descend 
to  posterity  as  living  memorials. 

These  gentlemen  inform  us  that  in  our  country,  one 
hundred  and  forty  different  species  of  trees  grow  to  the 
height  of  thirty  feet,  while  in  theirs,  only  thirtyseven 
grow  to  the  same  height,  and  that  but  eighteen  of  those 
are  natives  of  their  forests. 


Among  the  numerous  kinds  of  trees  which  in  this  as 
in  every  other  country,  load  the  earth  with  their  wealth, 
the  oak  is  the  most  extensive  and  most  interesting  genus. 
The  different  species  of  this  tree,  described  by  various 
authors,  amount  to  one  hundred  and  forty,  one  half  of 
which  are  natives  of  America. 

The  numerous  species  of  this  genus  possess  almost 
every  variety  of  character.  They  differ  greatly  in  their 
magnitude  and  elevation  ;  in  the  texture,  strength,  and 
durability  of  their  timber,  size,  taste,  and  abundance  of 
their  fruit ;  the  form,  color,  and  odor  of  their  leaves,  and 
in  almost  every  other  property  belonging  to  vegetables. 
While  one  species  presents  its  stern  and  lofty  head  to  the 
raging  of  the  tempest,  and  protects  from  its  fury  the  nu- 
merous trees  of  less  hardy  growth,  others  merely  creep 
upon  the  earth,  seldom  lising  more  than  twenty  inches 
above  its  surface.  The  timber  of  one  kind  is  almost  as 
firm  and  durable  as  iron,  while  that  of  another  is  so  loose 
and  open  in  its  texture  as  to  be  classed  among  the  soft 
woods.  The  acorns  of  some  oaks  are  large,  extending 
far  out  of  their  cups,  are  palatable  to  many  animals,  und 
by  some  nations,  especially  by  the  natives  of  America, 
esteemed  as  food  and  even  as  delicacies,  and  are  very 
abundant;  while  others  are  small,  nearly  covered  by  their 
envelope,  of  a  bitter  taste,  and  with  but  here  and  there 
one  upon  a  tree.  The  leaves  of  some  are  small,  others 
large  ;  some  smooth,  others  deeply  indented  ;  some  of  a 


FOHEST    TREES. 


189 


dark  green,  others  of  a  light  complexion  ;  some  enriching 
their  species  with  perpetual  verdure,  others  deserting  at 
the  first  annual  frost,  the  parent  stock  which  supported 
and  nourished  them  through  the  summer,  to  the  buffet- 
ings  of  every  winter. 

Accounts   of    several   oaks   hand  them   down  to  us 
as   renowned   in  history.     Some   on   account  of    their 
great  size,   others   for   their  recording,  or   in  some  way 
preserving    interesting    events.      One    in    Dennington 
Park,  (England),  called  the  king's  oak,  rose  to  the  height 
of  fifty    feet,   without    a   limb   or   knot,     and     squared 
five  feet   of  solid  timber.     Another,  called  the    queen's 
oak,  was     nearly  the   same   size.      An    oak     in    Holt 
Forest  was  thirtyfour  feet  in  circumference  in  1759,  and 
twenty  years  after,  the  circumference  had  not  increased 
half  an  inch.     Another  extended  its  boughs  one  hundred 
and  forty  feet,  and  furnished  twentyeight  tons  of  timber. 
The  Boddington  oak,  in  the  vale  ofGloucester,  was  fifty- 
four  feet  in  circumference    at  the  base,  with  a  hollow  ca- 
vity of  sixteen  feet.     Damory's  oak,   in  Dorsetshire,  the 
largest  known,  was  sixtyeight  feet  in  circumference,  with 
a  cavity  of  sixteen  feet  by  twenty,  and  was  used  in  the 
time  of  Cromwell  for  the  entertainment  of  travellers.     In 
1703,  it  was  shattered  by  a  storm,  and  in   1755  the  last 
vestiges  of  it  were  sold  for  fire-wood.     An  immense  oak 
was  dug  out  of  the  Hatfield  bog,  one  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  in  length,  twelve  feet  in  diameter  at  the  base,  and 
six  feet  at  the  smaller  end  where  it  was  broken  off. 

Less  than  a  hundred  years  since,  the  oak  against  which 
the  arrow  of  Sir  William  Tyrrel  glanced  before  it  killed 
William  Rufus,  was  standing,  though  in  a  decayed  state. 
Charles  the  Second  concealed  himself  in  an  oak  at  Bas- 
cobell,  after  his  defeat  at  Worcester.  An  oak  still  more 
renowned,  is  said  to  be  standing  in  Stirlingshire,  under 
which  the  Scottish  patriot,  Wallace,  convened  his  follow- 
ers, and  impressed  upon  them  the  necessity  of  throwing 
off  the  yoke  Edward  was  attempting  to  fasten  upon  them, 
and  their  power  of  freeing  themselves  from  his  thraldom. 
Alfred's  oak,  at  Oxford,  which  was  a  sapling  when  that 
great  monarch  founded  the  university,  is  said  to  be  still 
standing.  An  oak  is  still  standing  in  Hartford,  Connec- 
VOL.  i.  — NO.  vni.  17* 


190  FOREST    TREES. 


ticut,  under   which  was  concealed  the   charter  of  the 
state  given  by  Charles  Second  soon  after  it  was  received. 

WHITE    OAK. 

The  most  valuable  species  in  this  genus  of  forest 
trees  both  in  Europe  and  America  is  the  white  oak. 
Indeed,  the  timber  of  this  tree  is  probably  applied  to  a 
greater  variety  of  uses  in  the  domestic  and  useful  arts 
and  comforts,  than  any  other  vegetable  growing  upon  our 
globe.  In  the  character  of  this  timber  are  combined  so- 
lidity, strength,  elasticity,  durability,  and  an  abundant 
growth,  extending  in  this  country  in  greater  or  less 
quantities  from  latitude  28  °  to  40  °  north.  It  is  used  to  a 
great  extent  for  the  frames  and  coverings  of  houses,  for 
almost  all  kinds  of  agricultural  implements,  such  as 
wagons,  carts,  ploughs,  and  harrows,  also  for  the  posts 
of  fences,  and  sometimes  for  boards  ;  and  except  hickory 
it  is  the  best  fire-wood  found  in  the  northern  states. 

It  is  used  in  vast  quantities  for  the  staves  of  casks,  fifty- 
three  millions  of  which  were  exported  to  the  West 
Indies,  and  the  same  article  to  the  amount  of  one  hun- 
dred and  fortysix  thousand  dollars  to  England,  in  the 
year  1808,  a  part  of  which,  however,  were  other  species 
of  the  same  genus  than  white  oak.  The  same  timber 
when  young,  on  account  of  its  elasticity,  is  extensively 
used  for  hoops,  as  it  is  for  baskets  and  many  other  pur- 
poses where  that  property  is  required. 

But  perhaps  the  most  extensive,  if  not  the  most  impor- 
tant use  to  which  this  timber  is  applied,  is  tho  building  of 
ships.  In  most  of  the  ship-yards  in  the  United  States, 
the  keel,  frame,  knees,  planks,  and  many  of  the  boards, 
for  vessels  of  all  sizes,  are  made  of  the  timber  of  the 
white  oak. 

Though  the  American  white  oak  bears  a  near  re- 
semblance to  that  of  England  and  other  parts  of  Europe, 
it  is  said  to  be  less  firm  in  its  texture,  less  durable,  and  of 
course  less  valuable  for  most  of  the  purposes  to  which  it 
is  applied.  It  hence  cannot  like  many  other  American 
trees,  be  recommended  for  cultivation  in  Europe,  but  on 
the  contrary  the  European  oak  ought  to  be  introduced 
into  our  own  forests. 


FOREST    TREES.  191 


The  acorns  of  this  species  are  large  and  sweet,  of  a 
grayish  color,  contained  in  a  rough  and  shallow  cup,  but 
not  abundant.  The  bark  is  white  and  rough,  the  leaves 
deeply  indented,  and  by  that  means  cut  into  large  lobes  ; 
many  of  them  continue  upon  the  tree  through  the  winter, 
which  circumstance  is  peculiar  to  this  species. 

LIVE    OAK. 

This  singular  and  useful  tree  is  confined  to  the  south- 
ern sections  of  the  United  Slates.  It  has  the  most  luxu- 
riant growth  on  the  islands,  and  near  the  creeks  in  the 
Carolinas,  Georgia  and  Florida.  Its  northern  limit  is  near 
Richmond,  Virginia,  and  it  extends  from  thence  to  the 
mouth  of  the  Mississippi.  Its  numerous  limbs,  with  their 
branching  and  irregular  form,  and  the  hardness  and  dura- 
bility of  the  wood,  render  it  the  most  valuable  material 
that  grows,  for  the  building  of  ships.  Its  great  impor- 
tance to  our  navy,  the  narrow  limits  to  which  it  is  confin- 
ed, and  the  great  destruction  it  has  suffered,  to  give  place 
to  the  growth  of  cotton,  have  led  Congress  to  take  meas- 
ures to  preserve  and  cultivate  it. 

It  is  neither  so  large,  or  so  high,  as  many  other  trees  ; 
its  common  height  being  from  forty  to  fiftyfive,  and  the 
diameter  of  the  body  from  one  to  two  feet.  It  has  a 
broad  tufted  head,  supported  upon  a  trunk  about  eighteen 
or  twenty  feet  high,  and  when  seen  from  a  distance,  has 
some  resemblance  to  an  aged  apple  tree,  or  perhaps  more 
like  a  pear  tree.  Its  leaves  are  small,  of  an  oval  shape, 
not  indented,  of  a  dark  green  on  the  upper  surface,  and 
whitish  beneath.  They  continue  upon  the  tree  several 
years,  and  fall  but  gradually,  so  that  the  tree  always  re- 
tains its  rich  and  native  verdure. 

The  acorns  are  of  a  long  oval  form,  almost  black,  cups 
shallow  with  a  gray  color.  The  natives  are  said  to  have 
extracted  an  oil  from  them,  which  they  used  with  their 
food,  besides  eating  them  in  their  natural  state.  They 
are  abundant,  some  seasons  particularly,  and  they  germi- 
nate so  readily,  as  sometimes  to  shoot  out  their  radicals 
before  they  fall  from  the  tree. 

Few  trees  are  probably  more  deserving  of  an  extensive 
cultivation  ;  but  doubts  are  entertained  whether  they  can 


192  FOREST    TREES. 


be  propagated,  except  in  maritime  regions;  and  it  has 
even  been  supposed  that  sea  air  is  essential  to  its  existence. 

CORK    OAK. 

The  tree  which  furnishes  all  the  cork  used  in  the 
domestic  and  useful  arts,  is  confined  to  the  south  of  Eu- 
rope and  the  north  of  Africa.  It  is  an  evergreen,  though 
a  great  portion  of  the  leaves  fall  every  spring,  giving  place 
to  fresh  ones.  They  are  oblong  oval,  of  a  light  green 
above,  and  whitish  beneath.  Acorns  large  and  half  buried 
in  their  cups,  of  sweet  taste,  and  palatable  to  some  ani- 
mals, especially  swine.  The  timber  of  this  tree  is  hard 
and  compact,  but  less  durable  than  the  more  common  oaks. 
The  principal  value  of  the  cork  oak  is  in  the  bark, 
which  indeed  constitutes  the  riches,  in  a  great  measure, 
of  those  countries  where  it  grows  naturally  or  by  cultiva- 
tion. Spain,  Portugal,  France,  Italy,  and  some  of  the 
Barbary  States,  furnish  the  cork  for  commerce. 

The  first  coat  which  is  taken  from  the  tree,  when  it  is 
about  fifteen  years  old,  is  of  little  value,  being  thin,  hard, 
and  full  of  fissures.  The  second  coat,  which  is  removed 
about  ten  years  after,  is  valued  but  slightly.  Thfe  bark  is 
afterwards  removed  once  in  about  eight  or  ten  years,  and 
every  succeeding  crop  increases  in  value. 

July  and  August,  are  the  months  for  removing  the 
bark,  which  is  done  by  making  incisions  lengthwise  of 
the  body  and  two  or  three  in  a  circular  direction,  by  the 
application  of  wedges,  hammers,  &,c.  After  the  bark  is 
removed,  it  is  slightly  charred  to  contract  its  pores,  when 
by  the  application  of  weights  to  flatten  its  surface,  it  is 
prepared  for  market. 

Two  thousand  five  hundred  tons  of  cork  were  import- 
ed into  Great  Britain  in  the  year  1827.  France  is  sup- 
posed to  furnish  seventeen  or  eighteen  thousand  quintals 
of  cork  annually,  each  quintal  giving  seven  or  eight  thou- 
sand corks,  amounting  to  a  hundred  and  ten  or  a  hun- 
dred and  fifteen  millions,  most  of  which  are  consumed 
in  that  country.  Michaux  is  of  opinion,  that  the  intro- 
duction of  the  cork  oak  into  the  United  States,  would 
prove  a  great  acquisition  to  the  country. 

VARIOUS    OAKS. 

The  species  of  oaks  are  too  numerous  to  admit  of  a 


FOREST    TREES.  193 


particular  description  in  this  tract ;  a  few  others  however, 
will  be  mentioned. 

Black  Oak  is  very  abundant  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States,  and  is  extensively  used  for  fuel  and  many 
purposes  in  the  arts,  and  perhaps  conies  next  to  the  white 
oak  in  the  value  of  its  timber.  The  bark  of  this  tree  is 
of  great  value,  both  in  tanning  and  dying.  It  is  one  of 
the  tallest  trees  in  our  forests,  growing  to  the  height  of 
80  or  90  feet. 

Had  Oak,  like  that  last  mentioned,  grows  to  a  great 
height  and  in  great  abundance,  in  the  northern  states.  It 
produces  acorns  of  a  large  size  and  in  bountiful  crops. 

Scarlet  Oak  grows  in  the  vicinity  of  Boston,  and  in 
other  parts  of  the  Union  farther  south,  but  not  in 
Maine,  New  Hampshire  or  Vermont.  It  is  a  large  tree 
and  useful  for  numerous  purposes. 

Spanish  Oak  does  not  grow  in  New  England,  but  is  a 
large,  abundant  and  useful  tree  in  New  Jert-ey,  and  States 
farther  south.  Its  bark  is  particularly  valuable. 

Bear  Oak,  frequently  known  by  the  name  of  schrub 
oak,  is  very  common  in  New  England,  but  less  known 
farther  south.  Its  common  height  is  three  or  four  feet, 
and  it  sometimes  grows  to  the  height  of  eight  feet.  The 
small  size  of  this  tree,  though  it  covers  hundreds  of  acres 
of  barrens  in  some  regions,  gives  but  little  value  to  its 
growth. 

Running  Oak  is  the  smallest  species  in  this  genus, 
seldom  rising  more  than  twenty  inches  from  the  earth, 
and  is  found  in  the  Carolinas,  Georgia  and  Florida. 

Bartram's  Oak  is  a  single  tree,  growing  on  the  farm  of 
Mr  Bartram,  three  miles  from  Philadelphia.  It  is  about 
thirty  feet  high,  and  eight  in  diameter,  and  is  the  only 
individual  known  of  that  species. 

Willow  Oak,  Laurel  Oak,  Mossy  Cup  Oak,  Chesnut 
Oaks,  of  several  species,  Post  Oaks,  and  numerous  other 
kinds,  grow  in  abundance  in  different  parts  of  this  coun- 
try, but  the  occasion  will  not  justify  a  description. 


Next  to  oaks,  walnuts  are  the  most  numerous  species 
of  trees  in  American  forests.     Two  general  divisions  are 


194  FOREST    TREES. 


made  of  this  genus,  the  one  embracing  two  species,  viz. 
the  Black  Walnut  and  Butternut ;  -  the  other,  all  that 
large  class  of  trees  known  by  the  name  of  Hickory.  In 
several  points,  the  black  walnut  and  butternut  bear  a  near 
resemblance,  and  when  young  can  hardly  be  distinguish- 
ed, the  bark  and  leaves  being  almost  precisely  alike. 

Their  fruit  is  alike  in  having  the  outer  husk  in  one 
connected  piece,  so  that  it  cannot  be  removed  without  a 
fracture,  in  which  they  differ  from  all  the  species  of  hick- 
ory. The  shape  of  the  fruit  of  the  black  walnut,  is  al- 
most perfectly  gobular,  while  that  of  butternut  is  oval. 

The  timber  of  both  these  species,  is  valuable  for  many 
purposes  in  the  arts,  and  though  somewhat  alike  in  the 
texture  and  appearance,  the  walnut  is  preferred  for  most 
uses  to  which  they  are  applied.  Indeed,  few  kinds  of 
timber  growing  in  this  country,  are  more  extensively 
used,  and  better  answer  a  great  variety  of  purposes,  than 
the  black  walnut.  It  is  of  great  value  in  numerous  kinds 
of  cabinet  work,  and  before  the  introduction  of  mahoga- 
ny, it  was  perhaps  more  used  in  that  work,  than  any 
other  material.  It  is  also  used  for  ship-building  to  some 
extent,  and  answers  well  both  for  the  knees  and  floors  of 
vessels  of  various  sizes.  Gun-stocks  are  made  of  this 
timber  almost  exclusively,  which  use,  at  the  national  ar- 
mories, especially  those  at  Springfield  and  Harper's  Ferry, 
furnishes  a  large  market  for  the  timber,  which  is  supplied 
from  Philadelphia. 

The  black  walnut  grows  in  great  abundance  in  Penn- 
sylvania, Kentucky,  Ohio  and  other  western  States,  and 
although  it  is  not  a  native  of  New  England,  wherever  it 
has  been  introduced  there,  it  grows  with  great  luxuriance, 
and  might  undoubtedly  be  cultivated  in  any  of  the  north- 
ern States,  with  great  success.  It  is  perhaps  an  article 
of  political  economy  worthy  of  attention. 

This  tree  resembles  the  common  English  walnut,  both 
in  its  timber  and  fruit.  Where  the  two  have  been  culti- 
vated beside  each  other,  as  is  the  case  in  England,  the 
American  tree  outstrips  the  other  in  its  growth.  By 
grafting  the  European,  or  rather  the  Asiatic  walnut  on  to 
the  American,  we  may  obtain  the  fruit  of  one  and  the 
timber  of  the  other. 


FOREST    TREES.  195 


The  butternut,  or  as  it  is  called  at  the  south,  the  white 
walnut,  grows  well  in  Canada,  and  in  every  part  of  New 
England.  The  timber  of  this  tree  is  of  considerable 
value  in  the  arts,  and  some  specimens  which  have  been 
put  into  cabinet  work,  nearly  equal  mahogany  in  beauty. 
As  it  is  a  hardy  tree,  and  fitted  to  a  northern  climate,  it 
is  perhaps  worthy  of  more  extensive  cultivation. 

Hickory.  —  The  most  interesting  species  of  that  large 
class  of  walnuts,  called  hickories,  is  probably  the  shag- 
bark  ;  called  also  the  shell  bark,  and  scaly  bark.  The 
timber  of  this  tree  is  more  flexible  and  stronger  than  al- 
most any  other  in  this  country,  and  consequently  is 
peculiarly  fitted  to  certain  purposes,  which  cannot  be  an- 
swered by  other  wood  of  greater  firmness  and  durability. 
It  is  much  used  for  hoops,  bows,  and  numerous  other 
articles,  which  require  great  flexibility.  It  is  more  val- 
uable for  fuel  than  any  other  wood  in  the  northern  States, 
and  though  of  rather  a  slow  growth,  on  account  of  its 
great  value  in  the  arts  and  comforts  of  life,  deserves  cul- 
tivation. 

The  fruit  of  the  shagbark  walnut  is  preferable  to  any 
other  except  one,  and  besides  that,  is  the  only  one  which 
yields  nuts  of  sufficient  value  to  be  sent  to  market  These 
nuts  are  very  palatable  and  much  used,  especially  in  re- 
gions where  they  grow. 

Another  kind  of  hickory  resembling  that  just  mention- 
ed, is  the  thick  shagbark.  It  is  difficult  to  perceive  a 
difference  in  the  tree  or  timber,  but  the  fruit  of  the  last 
is  nearly  twice  as  large  as  that  of  the  other,  with  a  shell 
so  thick  as  not  to  be  broken  but  by  a  heavy  blow,  and  is 
far  less  pleasant  to  the  taste,  and  consequently  seldom 
used. 

Pacane-nut  is  a  species  of  hickory  growing  in  Louisiana, 
Illinois,  Missouri  arid  other  western  States.  It  is  a  hand- 
some tree,  growing  like  the  two  last  mentioned,  to  the 
height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and  like  them  with  tim- 
ber, coarse  grained,  heavy  and  strong,  and  leaves  from 
12  to  18  inches  in  length. 

Tho  nuts  are  large,  with  full  kernel,  thin  shell,  an 
agreeable  taste,  very  abundant,  and  exported  in  large 
quantities  to  the  West  Indies  and  different  parts  of  the 


196  FOREST    TREES. 


United  States.  The  growth  is  slow,  but  if  they  should 
be  grafted  into  the  black  walnut  or  shagbark  with  suc- 
cess, their  cultivation  would  be  an  object  worthy  atten- 
tion. 

The  Pig-nut,  has  a  productive  growth,  and  furnishes 
timber  of  equal  or  greater  strength,  than  any  other  species 
of  the  walnut.  The  fruit  is  small  with  a  thick  shell,  not 
agreeable,  and  of  our  course  of  little  value,  except  to  re- 
produce ils  kind. 

This  tree  grows  through  an  extensive  range,  and  south  of 
Vermont  and  New  Hampshire,  is  common  in  every  part 
of  New  England. 

Bitter-nut  is  a  common  tree  in  various  parts  of  the 
United  States.  It  rises  to  the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty 
feet,  and  furnishes  timber  of  some  value,  though  of  less 
than  most  of  the  species  ju-t  mentioned.  The  nuts  are 
small,  with  thin  shells  and  disagreeably  bitter. 

It  will  be  concluded  from  this  slight  description  of  a 
few  species  of  the  walnut,  that  they  are  an  important  arti- 
cle of  the  natural  growth  of  the  United  States.  Although 
the  properties  of  the  two  general  divisions  in  this  genus, 
do  not  resemble  each  other,  and  of  course  the  timber  of 
each  is  fitted  for  different  uses,  all  are  of  great  value  in 
the  arts,  and  deserve  both  preservation  and  cultivation. 

The  hickories  resemble  each  other  in  the  size,  form 
and  general  appearance  of  the  tree,  arid  in  the  quality, 
and  of  course  the  uses  of  the  timber.  The  timber  of  each 
possesses  great  weight,  strength  and  flexibility,  but  are 
all  subject  to  rapi  I  decay,  when  exposed  to  heat  and 
moisture,  and  are  attacked  and  nearly  consumed  by  worms. 


Botanists  have  described  fourteen  species  of  maple, 
seven  of  which  belong  to  America.  They  are  among  the 
most  lofty  and  beautiful  trees  of  our  forests,  and  grow  in 
great  abundance  over  a  large  extent  of  territory.  They 
extend  on  both  continents  to  northern  latitudes,  and 
flourish  well  in  the  coldest,  hardest  soils. 

The  different  species  of  maples  are  not  only  among 
the  greatest  ornaments  of  the  forest,  but  are  applied  to 
numerous  important  uses  in  the  arts. 


FOREST    TREES.  197 


The  most  stately  and  beautiful  tree  in  this  genus,  is  the 
Sugar  Maple,  -This  tree  enters  largely  into  the  forests  of 
the  northern  States,  and  grows  no  where  in  greater  abun- 
dance than  between  the  latitudes  of  46°  and  43°,  which 
embrace  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia,  Vermont, 
New  Hampshire  and  Maine.  In  some  parts  of  New  York 
and  Pennsylvania,  it  is  also  common  and  abundant.  It 
was  estimated  by  Dr  Rush,  that  in  the  northern  parts  of 
these  two  states,  there  were  ten  millions  of  acres  contain- 
ing the  sugar  maple,  at  the  rate  of  thirty  trees  to  an  acre. 
In  Virginia,  the  Carolinas,  Georgia  and  Mississippi,  it  is 
seldom  if  ever  found. 

The  sugar  maple  occupies  a  more  extensive  range  of 
American  territory,  than  any  other  species  of  this  genus. 
It  flourishes  best  on  elevated,  and  even  mountainous  situ- 
ations, and  in  moist  soils,  and  is  often  found  in  company 
with  beach,  ash  and  birch. 

This  tree  often  rises  to  the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty 
feet,  though  more  commonly  to  fifty  or  sixty.  The  great 
height,  extended  branches,  regular  form,  rich  verdure, 
and  neat  appearance  of  the  leaves,  render  it  a  most  beau- 
tiful shade  tree,  and  it  well  deserves  to  line  the  sides  of 
all  our  streets  throughout  the  Union. 

The  wood  when  first  cut,  is  white,  but  by  exposure  for 
a  short  time,  takes  a  rosy  tinge.  The  grain  is  fine  and 
close,  and  when  polished,  has  a  silky  lustre.  It  is  strong 
and  heavy,  but  not  durable  when  exposed  to  the  weather. 
In  Vermont.  New  Hampshire  and  Maine,  where  oak  and 
chesnut  are  not  common,  tnaple  timber  is  used  in  their 
stead,  as  it  is  more  durable  than  beech,  elm  or  birch.  It 
is  much  used  by  cabinet  and  chair-makers,  and  to  some 
extent  by  wheelwrights,  for  axletrees,  spokes,  lining  the 
runners  of  sleds,  &.c.  The  sugar  maple  timber  is  also 
sometimes  used  for  the  frames  of  houses,  'keels  and  lower 
frames  of  ships,  and  many  other  purposes  which  do  not 
expose  it  to  sudden  decay  by  alternate  moistening  and 
drying. 

Two  accidental  forms  are  found  in  some  specimens  of 
the  sugar  maple,  which  are  much  valued  and  sought  for 
by  cabinet-makers,  as  they  give  beauty  to  their  work. 
The  first  is  an  undulating  form  in  the  grain  of  the  wood, 

VOL.I.  —  NO.  VHI.  18 


198  FORRST    TREES. 


which  in  this  and  the  red  flowering  species,  constitute 
the  curled  maple  ;  the  second,  which  is  found  only  in  old 
trees  in  a  sound  state,  is  a  singular  appearance  of  small 
radiating  spots,  more  or  less  thickly  interspersed  through 
the  wood,  and  furnish  the  material  called  bird's-eye 
maple.  These  singular  spots  are  more  numerous  near 
the  sap  than  near  the  heart  of  the  tree. 

The  cause  which  produces  these  singular  appearances 
in  this  timber  has  never  been  satisfactorily  explained. 
Both,  however,  are  beautiful,  and  if  brought  from  a  foreign 
country,  the  furniture  made  from  it  would  be  prized  as 
the  richest  specimens  to  adorn  our  parlors. 

The  sugar  maple  when  cut  at  the  proper  season,  and 
thoroughly  dried,  forms  an  excellent  fuel,  for  which  pur- 
pose it  is  exported  from  Maine  in  great  quantities.  The 
quantity  of  heat  produced  from  a  given  bulk  of  this  wood, 
though  less  than  that  from  hickory,  is  greater  than  can 
be  furnished  from  most  of  the  hard  woods. 

The  ashes  procured  from  this  species  of  the  maple,  are 
richer  in  the  alkaline  principle,  and  more  abundant  in 
quantity  than  those  obtained  from  any  other  tree.  They 
furnish  a  large  part  of  the  potash  exported  to  Europe 
from  New  England  and  Ne\v  York. 

The  charcoal  procured  from  this  wood  and  used  in 
forges  and  domestic  economy,  is  of  the  most  valuable 
kind  ;  and  that  made  in  Vermont,  New  Hampshire  and 
Maine,  is  one  fifth  heavier,  than  that  from  the  same  tree 
in  the  more  southern  States  ;  a  proof  that  northern  lati- 
tudes are  fitted  to  the  growth  and  firmness  of  maples. 

The  sap  of  the  sugar  maple  furnishes  no  inconsidera- 
ble resource  for  the  economy,  the  comfort,  and  even  the 
wealth  of  our  northern  citizens  ;  especially  to  those  occu- 
pying regions  newly  settled. 

The  method  of  procuring  the  sap  and  forming  the  sugar, 
is  simple,  and  nearly  the  same  in  most  places  where  any 
is  resorted  too.  The  common  process  to  collect  the  sap 
is  to  perforate  the  tree  with  an  inch  auger,  in  two  places 
about  four  inches  apart,  and  eighteen  or  twenty  inches 
from  the  ground.  It  is  found  that  a  more  abundant  flow 
of  sap  is  obtained  from  a  shallow,  than  a  deep  hole.  Into 
these  holes,  two  tubes  are  inserted,  which  from  the  direc- 


FOREST    TREES.  199 


tion  given  the  auger  in  boring,  nearly  meet  at  the  outer 
ends.  The  tubes  are  made  of  elder,  sumac  or  other 
shrub  with  a  large  pith,  and  conduct  the  sap  into  small 
troughs  or  buckets,  from  which  it  is  conveyed  to  the 
camp,  or  the  place  where  temporary  preparations  are 
made  for  boiling,  &c.  These  preparations  are  little  more 
than  a  boiler,  containing  from  rifteen  to  fifty  gallons,  sus- 
pended upon  a  bar  supported  by  crotches,  at  a  convenient 
distance  from  the  ground  for  building  the  fire  ;  moulds  to 
receive  the  syrup  when  of  sufficient  consistence  to  form 
into  cakes  ;  and  an  axe  for  preparing  the  fuel. 

The  evaporation  is  carried  on  by  a  constant  and  brisk 
boiling  of  the  sap,  which  is  frequently  replenished  as  the 
bulk  is  diminished,  until  a  syrup  is  formed  of  sufficient 
strength  to  become  solid  as  it  cools.  A  scum  which  is 
constantly  rising  to  the  surface  during  the  first  part  of 
the  process  is  frequently  removed,  and  before  the  syrup  is 
left  to  cool  and  harden,  it  is  strained  through  woollen  cloth 
to  separate  the  remaining  impurities.  The  time  for  stop- 
ping the  evaporation  is,  determined  by  rubbing  a  drop  of 
the  syrup  between  the  fingers,  which  will  granulate  if  the 
process  has  been  carried  to  a  sufficient  length.  When 
the  ebullition  is  so  violent  as  to  give  signs  of  rising  over 
the  sides  of  the  boiler,  it  is  quelled  by  a  piece  of  lard, 
butter,  or  rind  of  pork. 

Maple  molasses  is  made  by  discontinuing  the  evapora- 
tion before  the  liquid  is  of  sufficient  consistence  to  con- 
solidate by  cooling,  and  by  the  drainings  from  the  syrup 
as  it  forms  into  sugar.  Sugar  of  the  finest  character  and 
grain  may  be  formed  from  the  sap  of  the  maple,  and 
though  the  more  common  kind  is  neither  very  white,  nor 
very  delicate,  it  has  a  peculiar  flavor,  much  admired  by 
those  not  accustomed  to  its  use. 

The  time  for  collecting  the  sap  is  about  the  last  of 
February,  and  continues  from  four  to  six  weeks  ;  after 
which  the  liquid  is  less  abundant  and  less  rich  in  the 
saccharine  principle,  and  is  finally  so  weak,  that  it  can  no 
longer  be  reduced  to  sugar.  The  tree  gives  the  most 
abundant  discharge  of  its  sap,  early  in  the  season,  and  in 
clear  pleasant  days,  preceded  by  cold  frosty  nights. 

The  quantity  of  sap  discharged  from  a  tree  of  an  ave- 
rage size,  varies  in  different  years  and  different  days. 


200  FOREST    TREES. 


Trees  are  sometimes  supposed  to  average  about  four 
pounds  of  sugar  in  a  season,  but  frequently  do  not  produce 
more  than  half  that  quantity.  A  single  tree  discharges 
in  one  day  from  two  quarts,  to  two  or  three  gallons  of  sap. 

The  following  statement  appeared  some  years  since 
in  the  Greensburgh,  Penn.  Gazette.  '  Having  introduc- 
ed,' says  the  writer,  '  twenty  tubes  into  a  sugar  maple,  I 
drew  from  it  the  same  day,  twentythree  gallons  and  three 
quarts  of  sap,  which  gave  seven  pounds  and  a  quarter  of 
sugar.  Thirtythree  pounds  have  been  made  this  season 
from  the  same  tree,  which  supposes  one  hundred  gallons 
of  sap.'  From  this  statement,  it  appears  that  but  little 
more  than  three  gallons  were  required  for  a  pound,  though 
four  gallons  are  commonly  allowed. 

Maple  sugar  is  made  in  most  of  the  northern  and  west- 
ern States,  and  in  Canada ;  and  it  has  been  supposed 
that  New  York  and  Pennsylvania  contain  maples  enough 
to  supply  the  consumption  of  sugar  in  the  whole  of  the 
United  States.  But  as  a  country  becomes  settled,  the 
groves  and  forests  of  maple  disappear,  and  the  expense  of 
converting  the  sap  into  sugar  is  increased ;  so  that  the 
whole  country  will,  within  a  moderate  period  of  time,  be 
supplied  with  this  useful  article  in  domestic  economy, 
from  foreign  importations,  or  from  the  juice  of  the  cane 
in  our  own  country. 

Though  the  ease  and  abundance  with  which  sugar  is 
made  from  the  cane,  and  the  expense  of  fuel  to  procure 
it  from  the  sap  of  the  maple  would  not  favor  the  cultiva- 
tion of  this  stately  and  beautiful  tree  for  the  supply  of  our 
tables,  the  value  of  its  timber,  and  the  elegant,  and  cleanly 
fshade  it  furnishes,  would  probably  render  the  cultivation 
of  it,  especially  by  the  sides  of  our  roads,  an  article  of 
domestic  and  political  economy,  as  well  as  a  public  orna- 
ment and  comfort. 

Most  kinds  of  domestic  animals  are  excessively  fond  of 
the  sap  of  the  maple,  and  frequently  break  through  their 
inclosures  to  get  access  to  the  vessels  containing  it. 

If  the  sap  be  exposed  for  a  few  days  to  a  warm  sun,  it 
is  formed  into  vinegar  of  a  good  quality.  Maple  beer, 
which  is  a  pleasant  beverage,  is  also  made  from  the  same 
material,  by  the  addition  of  yeast  and  the  essence  of  spruce. 


FOREST    TUBES.  201 


Besides  the  tree  just  described,  several  others  of  the 
same  species  are  worthy  of  a  fuller  notice,  than  can  be 
given  on  the  present  occasion. 

The  Red  Flowering  Maple  makes  its  first  appearance 
at  the  north  in  Canada,  latitude  48°;  becomes  more  abun- 
dant in  proceeding  south,  and  is  common  to  the  extremi- 
ties of  Florida  and  Louisiana.  Of  all  the  trees  which 
grow  in  wet  grounds,  and  those  occasionally  overflowed, 
this  flourishes  most  in  the  middle  and  southern  States. 
It  lines  the  borders  of  creeks,  and  abounds  in  swamps 
frequently  inundated,  and  always  miry.  In  these  situa- 
tions, it  is  found  in  company  with  black  and  white  ash, 
swamp  white  oak,  shagbark,  hickory,  and  two  or  three 
other  trees  less  commonly  known.  It  is  remarkable 
that  this  species  of  maple  is  also  found  in  the  vicinity  of 
Pittsburgh  on  elevated  ground.  But  in  swamps  it  has 
the  most  abundant  and  largest  growth,  where  it  rises  to 
the  height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet. 

The  timber  of  this  tree,  like  that  of  the  sugar  maple, 
is  used  in  various  kinds  of  cabinet  work ;  and  though 
less  hard  than  that,  .it  is  more  so  than  most  other  species 
of  this  genus,  and  of  a  closer,  finer  grain ;  and  is  hence 
readily  wrought  in  the  lathe,  and  polishes  with  a  glossy 
silken  surface.  It  finds  an  extensive  use  in  the  manu- 
facture of  chairs  and  cabinet  work,  and  was  formerly  a 
common  material  for  spinning-wheels. 

The  curled  rnaple,  much  sought  for  by  cabinet-makers, 
is  furnished  in  greater  abundance  from  this  species,  than 
that  already  described.  Before  the  introduction  of  ma- 
hogany, it  was  more  extensively  used  than  at  present, 
and  is  now  used  for  inlaying  mahogany,  and  other  mate- 
rials. For  the  stocks  of  fowling-pieces  it  is  much  used, 
for  which  purpose  its  lightness,  together  with  its  strength 
and  elegance,  renders  it  peculiarly  appropriate.  It  is 
but  poorly  fitted  for  fuel,  and  is  but  little  used  for  that 
purpose. 

The  French  Canadians  use  the  sap  of  the  red  flower- 
ing maple  for  sugar,  though  it  produces  but  half  the 
quantity  of  that  from  the  species  which  produces  this 
article  of  domestic  economy  in  so  great  abundance. 

The  inner  part  of  the  bark  of  this  tree,  is  used  as  a 
VOL.  i.  —  NO.  VIK.  18* 


202  FOREST    TREES. 


dye  stuff,  which,  with  copperas,  produces  a  dark  blue  ; 
and  with  the  addition  of  a  little  alum,  a  black. 

Notwithstanding  the  timber,  from  this  species  of  ma- 
ple, furnishes  an  elegant  material  for  cabinet  work,  and  is 
useful  for  many  purposes  in  the  domestic  and  common 
arts,  it  is  so  subject  to  decay,  and  to  be  devoured  by 
worms,  and  to  some  other  objections,  that  it  will  rapidly 
give  place  to  the  cultivation  of  plants  of  smaller  growth, 
and  will  be  less  likely  to  be  renewed  than  oak,  ash, 
walnut,  and  many  other  trees. 

The  White  J\laple  grows  in  Maine  and  Vermont, 
though  it  does  not  flourish  so  well  under  the  rigorous 
winters  of  these  states,  as  in  more  southern  climates.  On 
the  banks  of  the  Ohio  it  grows  in  abundance,  and  with 
great  majesty  and  beauty.  Its  numerous  extended 
branches,  the  richness  of  its  foliage,  interspersed  with 
that  of  the  willow,  the  brilliant  white  of  its  leaves  be- 
neath, forming  a  striking  contrast  with  the  bright  green 
above,  with  an  alternate  reflection  of  both  surfaces  from 
the  water  which  it  overhangs,  increases  in  no  small  de- 
gree the  beauty  of  the  landscape  on  this  majestic  river. 

It  is  remarked  that  this  tree,  unlike  others  of  the  same 
genus,  flourishes  only  on  the  banks  of  rivers  with  limpid 
waters  and  gravelly  beds,  and  not  in  swamps  and  other 
miry  soils  or  moist  grounds. 

The  flowers  of  the  white  maple  open  early  in  the 
spring,  are  small  and  sessile,  (closely  set  to  the  stem,) 
and  produce  fruit  with  two  capsules,  larger  than  those 
of  most  other  species  of  this  genus. 

The  wood  of  this  tree  is  white  and  of  a  fine  grain,  but 
is  softer  and  lighter  than  those  of  any  other  maple  in  the 
United  States  ;  and  from  its  want  of  strength  and  dura- 
bility, is  but  lit.tle  used  in  the  arts.  It  is,  however,  oc- 
casionally used  as  a  substitute  for  poplar  for  wooden 
bowls,  and  for  some  part  of  cabinet  work,  when  a  better 
material  cannot  be  procured.  Charcoal  formed  from  this 
wood,  is  much  used  and  valued  by  hatters,  as  it  affords 
a  more  uniform  heat,  and  of  longer  continuance  than  the 
coal  of  any  other  wood. 

The  sap  is  sometimes  used  for  sugar,  and  produces 
about  the  same  quantity  as  the  red  flowering  maple, 


FOREST    TREES.  203 


which  is  only  one  half  of  that  from  the  sugar  tree.  The 
sap  begins  to  discharge  from  the  tree  in  January,  and 
discontinues  before  the  other  appears. 

From  the  great  majesty  and  beauty  of  the  white  maple, 
together  with  the  rapidity  of  its  growth,  it  has  become,  in 
Europe,  the  subject  of  extensive  cultivation  in  gardens. 
Black  Sugar  Maple.  A  tree  somewhat  resembling  the 
sugar  maple,  and  frequently  mistaken  for  it,  grows  in 
Virginia,  Pennsylvania,  New  York,  and  the  southern 
part  of  New  England.  In  the  Genesee  country  it.  con- 
stitutes a  large  part  of  the  forests,  and  yields  an  abundance 
of  rich  sap,  which  is  much  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
sugar.  Its  foliage  is  much  darker  than  that  of  the-sugar 
maple,  and  is  hence  called  the  black  sugar  tree.  The 
shape,  size  and  situation  of  the  leaves,  flowers  and  seeds, 
are  much  the  same  as  those  of  the  species  for  which  it  is 
frequently  taken.  The  wood,  though  coarser  grained, 
and  less  brilliant  when  polished  than  some  other  maples, 
would  probably  find  a  more  extensive  use  in  the  arts,  did 
not  oak,  walnut,  and  other  valuable  timber  grow  in  abun- 
dance where  this  is  found. 

Sycamore  Tree.  A  species  of  maple,  known  by  the 
name  of  sycamore  tree,  is  diffused  over  the  centre  of 
Europe,  and  abounds  in  Bohemia,  Hungary  and  Poland. 
It  is  a  majestic  and  beautiful  tree,  rising  to  the  height  of 
sixty  or  seventy  feet,  with  a  regular  form,  and  leaves  of 
a  dark  green  above,  and  whitish  beneath.  In  the  heat  of 
midsummer  they  are  covered  by  a  sweet  viscid  substance, 
collected  with  avidity  by  bees. 

The  wood  of  the  sycamore  is  fine  grained,  and  suscep- 
tible of  a  beautiful  polish.  It  is  much  used  by  turners, 
frequently  for  making  violins,  and  sometimes  for  orna- 
menting forte  pianos.  A  course  of  interesting  experi- 
ments has  proved  it  to  be  capable  of  affording  more  heat 
than  any  other  tree  in  the  north  of  Europe. 

Sugar  has  recently  been  made  from  the  sap  of  the  syc- 
amore in  Bohemia  and  Hungary,  though  it  does  not 
yield  it  in  so  great  abundance  as  the  American  sugar 
maple. 

Nonoay  Maple.  Another  lofty  tree  in  the  forests  of 
Europe,  accompanies  the  sycamore ;  but  as  it  abounds 


204  FOREST    TREES. 


most  in  Sweden  and  Norway,  it  has  received  the  name 
of  Norway  maple.  Its  appearance  and  uses  so  much 
resemble  the  species  last  mentioned,  that  a  particular 
description  is  unnecessary. 

Mouse  Wood.  In  the  British  provinces  in  America, 
m  New  England,  and  in  small  quantities  farther  south, 
a  small  species  of  maple  constitutes  a  large  portion  of  the 
underbrush  in  many  of  the  forests.  It  seldom  grows  to 
more  than  ten  feet  in  height,  and  four  or  five  inches  in 
diameter.  The  light  color  and  fine  grain  of  the  wood, 
bring  it  into  use  in  some  of  the  smaller  work  of  cabinet- 
makers, but  its  small  size  will  prevent  an  extensive  ap- 
plication of  it  in  the  useful  or  domestic  arts. 

This  is  one  of  the  first  trees  to  announce  the  approach 
of  spring.  This  circumstance,  together  with  its  -rapid 
growth,  and  thick  and  beautiful  foliage,  has  brought  it 
into  extensive  cultivation  in  the  parks  and  gardens  of 
Europe. 

The  principal  use  mado  of  it  in  America  is  the  brows- 
ing of  cattle  at  the  opening  of  spring,  when  the  buds 
are  swollen,  the  twigs  tender,  and  rich  in  saccharine 
matter.  At  this  time  the  various  kinds  of  domestic  ani- 
mals, as  well  as  the  moose  and  other  animals  in  the 
forest,  feed  upon  the  buds,  twigs  and  branches  of  this 
tree  with  avidity.  The  first  settlers  observing  the  ra- 
pidity with  which  this  tree  was  devoured  by  moose,  then 
abounding  in  the  forests,  gave  it  the  name  of  moose 
wood,  which  it  has  ever  since  retained. 


No  tree  of  the  forest  rises  with  such  majesty  in  north- 
ern climates  as  the  birch.  It  is  found  as  far  north  as  the 
seventieth  degree  of  latitude,  though  under  the  intense 
cold  to  which  it  is  there  exposed,  it  appears  only  as  a 
shrub.  A  few  degrees  farther  south,  it  rises  to  the 
height  of  seventy  or  eighty  feet,  and  between  the  sixty- 
fifth  and  fiftyfifth  degrees  of  latitude,  is  the  tallest  and 
hardiest  of  the  trees  which  compose  the  forests. 

On  the  other  continent,  Russia,  Sweden,  Norway  and 
Lapland  are  the  countries  where  the  different  species  of 
birch  abound ;  on  this  continent,  Canada,  the  New  Eng- 


FOKEST    TREES.  205 

land  states,  and  northern  regions  generally,  are  congenial 
to  the  growth  of  this  vegetable,  where  it  is  more  common 
than  in  countries  farther  south.  As  maples,  elms  and 
beeches  increase,  birches  diminish  both  in  number  and 
size.  The  forty  fifth  degree  of  latitude  is  the  northern 
limit  of  this  genus  of  forest  trees  in  Europe  :  in  this 
country  it  is  found  in  latitudes  considerably  farther  south, 
though  here,  it  is  seldom  found  in  Virginia,  and  never  in 
the  more  southern  states. 

Seven  species  of  birch  have  been  discovered  in  Ame- 
rican forests,  and  about  the  same  number  in  those  of 
Europe.  Among  these  species,  there  is  a  less  variety 
than  in  some  other  trees  ;  though  they  differ  considerably 
in  their  size,  and  more  or  less  in  the  qualities  of  their 
timber. 

The  Canoe  Birch  is  the  most  common  tree  of  this 
genus  in  Canada,  New  Brunswick,  Maine,  New  Hamp- 
shire and  Vermont ;  but  it  is  not  known  in  the  southern 
part  of  Connecticut,  nor  in  New  York,  south  of  Albany. 

This  tree  grows  to  the  height  of  seventy  feet,  and 
three  feet  in  diameter.  The  wood  has  a  fine  glossy 
grain,  and  considerable  strength,  but  soon  decays  when 
exposed  to  the  weather.  It  is  much  used  in  cabinet 
work,  for  many  articles  in  which  it  is  a  beautiful  ma- 
terial. 

On  trees  not  more  than  six  or  eight  inches  in  diameter, 
the  bark  is  perfectly  white,  like  that  of  the  white  birch  of 
Europe,  and  like  that,  too,  it  appears  to  be  almost  inde- 
structible. This  bark  is  applied  to  various  uses,  some  of 
which  are  important.  It  is  sometimes  placed  beneath 
the  shingles  on  the  roofs  of  houses  ;  baskets,  boxes  and 
port-folios  are  made  of  it,  and  embroidered  with  silk  ; 
it  has  been  used  as  a  substitute  for  paper,  and  is  some- 
times placed  between  the  soles  of  shoes,  and  in  the 
crowns  of  hats,  as  a  protection  against  moisture. 

The  most  important  use  to  which  the  bark  of  birch  is 
applied,  is  in  the  conslruction  of  canoes,  from  which  this 
tree  derives  its  name.  The  bark  is  removed  from  the 
tree  in  the  spring,  in  strips  from  two  to  nine  inches 
wide,  and  ten  or  twelve  feet  long.  These  strips  are 
stitched  together  by  the  fibrous  roots  of  the  white  spruce. 


200  FOREST    TREES. 


The   seams   are  coated    with    resin    from   the    Balm  of 
Gilead. 

These  canoes  are  much  used  both  by  the  Indians  and 

French,  in  their  long  journeys  into  the  interior.     They 

are  sometimes  of  sufficient  size   to  carry  fifteen  passen- 

;rs;  and  one  capable  of  carrying  four  persons,  with  their 

,  weighs  but  forty  or  fifty  pounds, 
'he  canoe  birch  has  been  introduced  into  the  nurse- 
ries in  France  ;  and  as  it  grows  to  a  large  size  on  poor 
land,  and  surpasses  the  European  birches  in  the  qualities 
of  its  timber,  Michaux  is  of  opinion,  that  it  can  be  intro- 
duced to  advantage  into  the  forests  of  Europe. 

White  Birch.  This  species  of  birch,  like  the  one  last 
mentioned,  grows  in  Canada  and  the  New  England 
states,  and  is  sometimes  found  as  far  south  as  Virginia. 
It  is  neither  so  large  nor  so  abundant  as  some  other  spe- 
cies of  this  genus.  It  is  most  common  on  thin  soils, 
not  occupied  by  many  other  trees,  where  it  grows  to  the 
height  of  thirty  or  thirty  five  feet.  The  wood  is  white,  soft, 
and  of  a  glossy  lustre  ;  but  the  small  size  of  the  tree, 
and  the  rapid  decay  of  the  timber  when  exposed  to  the 
weather,  prevent  its  coming  into  use,  either  in  the  arts, 
or  for  fuel. 

Red  Birch.  The  climate  and  soil  of  the  southern 
states  appear  to  be  congenial  to  this  species  of  birch. 
It  flourishes  well  in  the  Carol inas,  and  even  in  Georgia, 
but  is  seldom,  if  ever,  found  north  of  New  Jersey.  It  is 
not,  like  other  species  of  birch,  found  in  forests  or  thick- 
ets of  other  trees,  but  on  the  banks  of  rivers,  accompanied 
by  the  button-wood,  white  maple  and  willow.  It  flour- 
ishes most  on  the  sides  of  limpid  streams  with  gravelly 
beds,  where  it  grows  to  the  height  of  seventy  feet. 

The  wood  of  the  red  birch  is  sufficiently  compact, 
hard  and  beautiful  to  fit  it  for  a  variety  of  uses,  not  un- 
like those  to  which  the  other  species  are  applied. 

The  Yellow  Birch  abounds  most  in  those  climates  and 
soils  where  the  canoe  birch  prevails.  It  is  a  beautiful 
tree,  and  rises  to  a  great  height.  The  trunk  is  straight, 
nearly  of  the  same  diameter,  and  frequently  without 
branches  to  the  height  of  thirty  or  forty  feet.  It  is  re- 
markable for  the  golden  yellow  color  of  the  bark,  from 
which  is  derived  its  name. 


FOREST    TREES.  207 


The  wood  is  used  for  many  kinds  of  cabinet  work  ; 
and  experience  has  proved  it  to  be  well  fitted  for  those 
parts  of  the  frames  of  vessels  which  are  always  under 
water.  It  is  also  an  excellent  fuel. 

Black  Birch.  The  beautiful  foliage,  and  the  valuable 
properties  of  the  timber  of  the  black  birch,  render  it  one 
of  the  most  interesting  species  of  this  genus  of  forest 
trees.  It  is  found  over  an  extensive  territory,  growing 
in  abundance  from  Canada  to  Maryland,  and  in  elevated 
or  mountainous  regions,  even  in  Georgia.  On  the  Hud- 
son River,  and  in  New  Jersey  it  is  one  of  the  first  trees 
to  announce,  by  the  opening  verdure  of  its  foliage,  the 
advancement  of  spring.  The  growth  of  this  tree  is 
rapid,  its  foliage  beautiful,  and  its  timber  no  less  useful 
than  any  other  species  of  birch.  From  these  consider- 
ations, Michaux  recommends  to  Americans  great  care  in 
the  preservation  of  it,  and  to  Europeans  the  introduction 
of  it  into  their  forests 

The  sap  of  the  birch  which  flows  in  great  abundance 
in  the  spring,  is  used  for  making  a  syrup,  and  may  be 
converted  into  beer,  vinegar,  and  a  kind  of  wine,  but  not 
into  sugar.  The  leaves,  both  in  a  green  and  dry  state, 
are  used  for  the  feeding  of  cattle. 

All  the  properties  of  the  common  white  birch  of  Eu- 
rope, are  united  in  the  canoe  birch  of  our  own  country. 

Although  tin's  genus  of  American  forest  trees  is  less 
useful  and  less  interesting  than  some  others  which  adorn 
and  enrich  our  country,  it  constitutes  a  part  of  the  beauty 
and  the  riches  of  this  highly  favored  part  of  the  globe, 
and  deserves  to  be  studied  more  and  appreciated  higher, 
by  those  into  whose  possession  it  has  fallen. 


•            *           t 

. 

AGENTS 

FOR  THE 

*    ;    • 

SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS. 

MAINE. 

Norwich,             Thomas  Robinson. 

Portland,           Samuel   CnJman. 
Hallowell,         C.   Snuiilding. 

Mi.ldlutown,       Kdiein  Hunt. 
NEW  YORK. 

Bangor,             £.  - 
Belfast,              JV.   P.  /filers. 

Albany,                Little  £    Cummiiins. 
Canaiidaigua,     P.tmis  t[    H  :rd. 

„     '                  \H.  .S.  Favor, 

Troy,       -             W.S.Pa.rktr. 

Eastport,              j     n       p    1 

I'tifa,                   G   S.   Wilsoa. 

Norway,            j?-vz  Bm-tn£ 

Rochester,          E.  Perl;  $    Co. 

"NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

NEW  JERSEY. 

n                       I  F.li  French, 

Trenton,              P.  Fr>,ion. 

Dover,            |  g-  c>  ,,.,,,„,,,.,. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Hanover,           Thomas  ,1MAn. 

(  /C.  Littcll  &'  Jit  other 

Concord,            Horatio  //•.'     $    Co. 

Philadelphia,   j  y. 

Keene,                Or.nrge  Ti^ni. 

MARYi.AM)." 

Portsmouth,     Jo/in  W.  : 
VERMONT. 

Baltimore,         Chnrlr.n  Carter. 
DISTRICT  OF  COI.I 

Burlington,    *•  C.   Gaud.        . 
Brittl..'!ioro',     Gen.  11.  Pi-c/,: 
Windsor,           Snneo,<  Idc. 

WasliniL'tDii,       TlioHifiua  If  ilaiiians. 

(Jeorjj'utown,       .In  we*  T/iomua. 
V-itCIMA. 

Montp,-li..r,       ./.  S.    H',,1',,,1. 
.•.,11s  .law,*  /.  r,,>lert  C,,. 

Freilericksburg,  11  m.  F.  ftrar,  P.M. 
OHIO. 

Rutland,              Win.  fay. 
Middlebury,      Jonathan.  Jlagar. 
CaMlKuii,          B.   Kurt.  2,7. 
St  Albans,         /,.  /,.  D,tt&er. 

CiriciniKiti,      j  c'",)!"^1'',^,,^  £ac0\ 
Columbus, 

sfissia3tppi. 

Chaster,             Clint-It*  1! 
MASSACHUSETIB. 

Natches,             F.  Beaumont. 
SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Salem,                Wn  ipple  $  A  :  irre.iicc. 

Cli  irii'-i:i>:i,        F.benntr  T/iayer. 

Newbnrvpnrt,   Charles    l!  ' 
Northau'ipton.  S.  HuHrr  Sf  .VUH. 
Andovtr,           JU.JVeicat      . 

NORTH  CAROLINA, 
ttaleigh,              Turner  if    Hughes. 
GKORGIA. 

Ainlierst,,           .7.  S.  If    C.  Jldimi. 

Savannah            Thomas  M.  7)ris:oll. 

WorcnstiT,        Dorr  4'    ;.' 

ALABA.MA 

Sprinsfirl.l,         Tliuma*  D 
Now  Ite.ltorJ,   Jt.Slir.arn,,-. 

Mobile,              0,ti,>rnr  ,$•  S-niH. 
LOI'ISIAN  \. 

Metliuen,          J.  n:  C,/r         .v  Co 
Brookfield,         F..  t(  (f.  .Mtrriam. 

New  Orleans,    .\htr-n  C.irrult. 
MICHIGAN  TEiJRITOilY. 

RHODE  Itil.AND. 

Detroit,                Genrirr   I..    H  It,  him. 

p        .  ,               (  Currti  $  !:• 
Providence,    J  ^  „••  ^,. 

CANADA. 

Montreal,           If.  H.   C<i7i7>i»oViam. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Quebec,             JV>.:/.v»..i.  4-  < 

Hartfvird,           ff.SrF..r. 
New  Haven,     ^.  /,..;/,. 

ENCLAM). 
Ijomlon,            JuhnKHardcn. 

BOSTON: 

PUBLISHED  BY  CARTER,   HENDEE  &  BABCOCK, 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 

BOSTON     CLASSIC     PRESS  I.     R.     BUTTS. 

%*  TERMS  —  24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  FIFTY 

C'ENTS.                ,     •     . 

*.               .                                 .             ...               •   f 

SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER  IX. 


THE    WEATHER. 

THE  eye,  as  Christian  philosophers  have  often  shown, 
is  an  optical  instrument,  contrived  for  its  purpose  with 
wonderful  dexterity.  The  whole  human  system  is  a 
highly  artificial  machine,  filled  with  evidences  of  inven- 
tive skill :  and  the  whole  animal  and  vegetable  creation  is 
crowded  with  the  most  consummate  proofs  of  contrivance, 
mechanical  and  chemical,  for  adapting  means  to  ends, 
and  for  accomplishing  those  benevolent  purposes  which 
the  Creator  has  in  view. 

There  is  not,  however,  in  the  whole  range  of  human 
observation,  any  case  in  which  this  benevolent  design, 
and  this  unrivalled  skill  in  the  selection  of  means  to 
promote  it,  is  more  striking  than  in  that  arrangement  in 
the  constitution  of  nature,  which  produces  those  phe- 
nomena, to  which,  as  a  class,  we  give  the  appellation  of 
THE  WEATHER.  These  proofs  are  not  at  once  so  evident; 
and  when  we  examine  th^m.we  find  them  so  unlike  any 
human  contrivances  that  wq»  do  not  so  easily  appreciate 
fBem.  The  telescope  imitates  the  eye  ;  the  automaton, 
made  by  the  highest  effort  of  human  skill,  gives  us  a 
faint  resemblance  of  muscular  motions  :  and  in  many 
other  cases  where  human  ingenuity  has  imitated  the 
Creator's  works,  we  can  more  easily  see  the  power  and 
wisdom  displayed  in  the  original,  because  we  can  appre- 
ciate the  efforts  made  to  produce  the  copy.  But  in 
regard  to  those  phenomena  which  are  now  our  subject, 
the  Creator's  work  stands  uncopied  and  alone.  There 
is  no  human  imitation  of  the  whirlwind  and  the  storm. 
There  is  no  power  or  skill  among  us  which  can  guide  the 
lightning  or  arouse  the  tornado.  Hence  we  have  nothing 
to  rest  upon  in  endeavoring  to  ascend  to  proper  concep- 

YOL.   I. NO.   IX.  19 


210  THE    WEATHER. 


tions  of  the  divine  wisdom  and  power  displayed  in  these 
phenomena. 

If  we,  however,  look  at  the  circumstances,  we  shall,  in 
a  degree,  be  able  to  understand  the  subject.  Let  us 
suppose  that  the  earth  had  been  completed  in  its  present 
form  and  condition,  but  without  an  atmosphere.  The 
ocean  lies  calm  and  still :  the  fields  and  hills  are  moistened 
with  water,  and  consequently  crowned  with  verdure  and 
fertility  ;  —  for  we  must  suppose  that  at  the  time  when  the  ' 
creation  is  completed,  there  is  a  proper  distribution  of  heat 
and  moisture  for  the  commencement  of  those  processes 
which  give  to  earth  its  beauty  and  fruitfulness.  Foun- 
tains therefore  spring  forth  among  the  hills.  Cataracts 
descend  from  every  precipice,  brooks  meander  through 
the  valleys,  and  their  united  waters  flow  on  in  the  majes- 
tic river.  In  fine,  the  whole  earth  is,  at  the  moment, 
precisely  what  it  is  now,  presenting  every  variety,  from 
the  drenched  meadow  to  the  warm  soil  of  the  elevated 
plain. 

But  all  is  still.  As  we  suppose  no  atmosphere,  there 
must  be  no  breeze,  and  the  whole  creation  must  sleep  in 
apparent  death.  No  bird  can  fly  ;  and  if  we  suppose 
that  Providence  has  arranged  it  so  that  human  life  can 
be  preserved  without  the  air,  man  would  observe,  as  he 
walked  around,  one  universal  silence  and  stillness,  of 
which  no  calm  summer's  evening  can  now  give  us  any 
conception.  The  ocean  must  present  one  broad,  glassy 
expanse,  unruffled  by  any  wave,  unless  the  entrance  of 
some  mighty  river  should  send  forth  a  few  silent  ripples. 
No  leaf  would  rustle  or  move ;  not  a  blade  of  grass 
would  wave,  and  not  a  sound  would  arise  from  nature,  or 
animal,  or  man.  The  lion  might  strive  in  vain  to  roar, 
and  the  lofty  cataract  would  fall  upon  the  rocks  silently. 

But  this  dreadful  calm  would  not  be  all.  As  the  brooks 
and  streams  could  carry  their  waters  unceasingly  to  the 
ocean  —  that  great  home  of  the  waters  —  there  would  be 
no  means  of  again  supplying  their  fountains.  The  spring 
from  the  hill  side  would  soon  be  checked  in  its  flow; 
the  cataract  grow  slender  in  its  form,  and  at  last  cease  to 
fall  ;  the  southern  sloping  hill  would  soon  become 
brown,  and  nature,  from  every  elevated  spot,  would  soon 
call  for  water.  But  it  must  call  in  vain.  Gravitation 


THE    WEATHER.  211 


would  hurry  with  irresistible  energy  every  brook  and 
stream  onward  in  its  course,  and  ere  long  the  work  would 
be  done.  Every  fountain  would  have  failed  ;  river  after 
river  would  have  left  its  bed  deserted  and  dry.  The 
meadows  and  marshes  would  be  drained ;  the  waters  of 
every  lake  and  pond  would  have  escaped,  and  men  might 
walk  over  the  dry  and  dusty  bed  even  of  Niagara. 

The  consequences  to  animal  and  vegetable  life  need 
not  be  described.  It  requires  very  little  imagination  to 
see  that  our  lovely  earth  would  soon  reduce  itself  under 
these  circumstances  to  one  universal  desert ;  upon  which 
every  plant  and  every  land  animal  must  have  found  a 
grave. 

And  what  was  the  plan  which  the  Creator  adopted  in 
order  to  avoid  this  danger  ?  He  spreads  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  earth  an  ATMOSPHERE,  transparent,  invisi- 
ble, but  producing  almost  inconceivable  effects.  It 
raises  the  waters  from  the  ocean,  whither  they  are 
constantly  tending,  and  by  its  unceasing  motions  they 
are  borne  back  to  the  land  where  they  descend  in  re- 
peated showers.  By  this  arrangement,  the  great  object  is 
accomplished,  but1  it  is  not  by  a  regular  and  monotonous 
process.  There  are  a  few  simple  principles,  but  they 
produce  an  infinite  variety  of  effects. 

The  plan  which  will  be  adopted  in  this  treatise  will 
lead  me,  in  the  first  place,  to  detail  those  general  princi- 
ples upon  which  all  the  particular  phenomena  depend. 
They  are  few  and  simple  in  character. 

1.    TEMPERATURE    OF    THE    AIR. 

(a)  Diminution  of  Heat  from  the  Equator  towards  the 

Poles. 

Owing  to  the  manner  in  which  the  rays  of  the  sun 
fall  upon  the  different  regions  of  the  earth's  surface,  there 
is  a  gradual  diminution  of  heat  from  the  intense,  and 
sometimes  unmitigated  sultriness  of  the  equatorial 
regions,  to  the  severe  and  perpetual  cold  of  the  poles. 
The  following  interesting  description  of  a  scene  near  the 
southern  pole  will  give  the  reader  a  very  vivid  conception 
of  the  nature  and  effects  of  this  cold. 

The  individuals  mentioned  in  the  account  belonged  to 
Capt.  Cook's  celebrated  expedition  to  the  Pacific  Ocean. 


212  THE    WEATHER. 


It  must  be  noticed,  too,  that  this  took  place  in  the  sum- 
mer of  those  latitudes ;  i.  e.  in  January,  corresponding  to 
our  July.  The  party,  consisting  of  Sir  Joseph  Banks, 
Dr  Solander,  and  ten  attendants,  were  returning  from  a 
botanical  excursion,  and  Dr  Solander  had  just  been 
cautioning  the  company  against  indulging  in  a  propensity 
to  sleep.  The  account  proceeds  as  follows  : 

'  They  had  not  proceeded  far  before  the  effects  appre- 
hended began  to  be  felt ;  and  he,  who  had  thus  cautioned 
others,  was  the  first  to  declare  himself  unable  to  observe 
his  own  precept.  At  length,  overcome  by  a  stupor,  he 
threw  himself  on  the  ground,  although  it  was  covered 
with  snow.  A  black  servant  of  Mr  Banks,  name,d 
Richmond,  next  yielded  to  this  fatal  propensity.  In  this 
distress,  five  of  the  company  were  sent  forward  to  make 
a  fire  at  the  first  convenient  place  they  could  find,  while 
the  rest  continued  with  the  doctor,  making  use  of  every 
means  to  keep  him  awake.  The  poor  negro  was  so 
overcome  with  fatigue  that  being  told  he  must  keep  in 
motion  or  he  would  be  frozen  to  death,  replied  that  he 
desired  only  to  lie  down  and  die  !  At  length,  all  the 
endeavors  of  the  company  became  ineffectual.  Their 
whole  strength  was  not  sufficient  U>  carry  their  two 
exhausted  companions,  so  that  they  were  suffered  to  sit 
down,  and  in  a  short  time  they  fell  into  a  profound  sleep. 
In  a  few  minutes  afterwards  news  was  brought  that  a  fire 
was  kindled  at  the  distance  of  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile. 
Dr  Solander  was  then  waked  with  great  difficulty  ;  but 
during  his  short  sleep  his  muscles  were  become  so  con- 
tracted that  his  shoes  fell  off  his  feet,  and  he  had  almost 
lost  the  use  of  his  limbs  :  but  all  attempts  to  wake  the 
servant  were  ineffectual.  Two  men,  who  seemed  to  have 
suffered  the  least  by  the  cold,  were  left  to  look  after  him, 
and  in  a  short  time  two  others  were  sent  to  their  relief. 
One  of  the  former  rejoined  the  company,  but  the  other 
was  quite  inseneible.  Their  companions,  therefore, 
made  them  a  bed  of  boughs,  and  spread  the  same  covering 
over  them  to  a  considerable  height,  and  in  that  situation 
left  them  to  their  fate. 

'The  company  passed  the  remainder  of  the  night  in  a 
dreadful  situation  round  the  fire.  They  supposed  them- 


THE    WEATHER.  213 


selves  at  a  great  distance  from  the  ship ;  th,eir  way 
stretched  through  a  trackless  wood,  and  they  were 
unprovided  with  refreshments,  their  only  provisions  being 
a  vulture,  which  they  had  shot  in  the  course  of  their 
journey.  Nor  did  the  dawn  of  day  remove  their  appre- 
hensions ;  for  at  the  approach  of  light  nothing  presented 
itself  to  their  view  but  a  dreary  expanse  of  snow.  It 
was  not  till  six  o'clock  in  the  morning  that  they  could 
discover  the  place  of  the  sun  through  the  clouds,  which 
then  began  to  disperse.  With  foreboding  apprehensions 
they  went  in  search  of  poor  Richmond  and  the  other 
man,  whom  they  found  quite  dead.  A  dog,  which 
belonged  to  one  of  them,  was  however  still  alive  and 
standing  close  by  his  master's  corpse,  which  he  unwil- 
lingly left  to  follow  the  company.  The  hardy  nature  of 
this  animal  enabled  him  to  brave  the  severity  of  the 
weather,  and  he  was  for  several  years  afterwards  alive  in 
England.' 

This  diminution  of  heat  is,  however,  by  no  means 
regular.  Different  countries  —  equally  distant  from  the 
equator  —  are  very  different  in  climate,  according  to  their 
situation.  The  average  warmth  of  the  atmosphere  at 
any  place  is  learned  by  keeping,  for  a  long  time,  a  record 
of  the  weather  and  obtaining  the  mean  of  all  the  obser- 
vations. There  is  another  method  somewhat  singular  : 
that  is,  to  take  the  temperature  of  the  springs  of  water. 
These  it  is  supposed  come  from  such  a  distance  below 
the  surface  of  the  ground  that  they  are  not  affected  by 
the  ordinary  changes  of  heat  and  cold  in  the  atmosphere 
above,  and  they  are  accordingly  found  to  remain  nearly 
the  same  during  the  year.  In  making  such  observations, 
however,  a  proper  regard  must  be  had  to  the  situation  of 
the  springs,  the  strata  through  which  they  come,  and 
their  elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 

(6)  Diminution  of  Heat  from  the  Surface  of  the  Earth 
upwards. 

Although  this  fact  is  very  generally  known  and  ac- 
knowledged, the  cause  of  it  is  not  very  obvious.  An 
observer  at  the  equator,  in  the  middle  of  a  sultry  summer's 
day,  might  perhaps  imagine  that  if  he  were  to  ascend 

VOL.1 NO.  IX.  19* 


214  THE    WEATHER. 


into  the  atmosphere,  directly*  towards  the  sun,  it  would 
grow  warmer  the  farther  he  proceeds.  It  is  not,  how- 
ever, the  fact.  Whether  he  mounts  in  a  balloon  or 
ascends  a  mountain,  he  finds  the  cold  increases  as  he 
leaves  the  surface  of  the  earth,  until  he  arrives  at  a  region 
of  perpetual  ice  and  snow.  The  cause  is  this. 

Suppose  we  take  a  sponge,  compress  it  slightly  with 
the  hand,  and  pour  upon  it  as  much  water  as  it  will 
receive.  While  it  is  now  dripping  with  the  surplus, 
release  the  pressure.  The  pores  will  immediately  open, 
and  they  will  be  more  than  sufficient  to  absorb  the  water, ' 
so  that  the  sponge,  in  its  expanded  state,  will  be  com- 

ratively  empty.  So  if  the  experiment  is  reversed. 
a  sponge  is  moderately  wet,  while  in  its  expanded 
state,  and  afterwards  compressed  with  the  hand,  it  will 
be  found  that  it  cannot  retain  the  water  which  at  first  it 
received. 

Now  the  air  is  this  sponge,  compressed  near  the 
surface  of  the  earth  by  the  load  of  atmosphere  which  is 
above  it ;  and  the  heat  which  it  contains  is  represented 
by  the  water,  which  was  abundant  in  the  compressed,  and 
scarcely  perceptible  in  the  expanded  sponge.  If  a  por- 
tion of  this  air,  thus  compressed  at  the  surface  of  the 
earth,  and  containing  an  abundance  of  heat,  rises,  it 
expands,  and  occupies  a  larger  and  larger  space  :  the 
quantity  of  heat,  therefore,  which  it  contains,  is  diffused 
over  a  greater  space,  and  consequently  will  produce  less 
sensible  effects.  In  the  same  manner,  if  a  portion  of  the 
air,  in  an  elevated  region,  having  a  moderate  quantity  of 
heat  diffused  throughout  it,  should  descend,  it  will  become 
compressed  as  it  approaches  the  surface,  and  the  heat 
which  it  contains,  which  before  occupied  a  great  space, 
will  now  be  condensed  into  a  small  one,  and  will  produce 
more  sensible  effects.  In  other  words,  the  air  will 
become  warmer.  These  motions  of  the  air,  ascending 
and  decsending,  are  continually  taking  place,  and  they 
keep  up  a  constant  difference  in  temperature  of  the 
higher  and  lower  regions. 

Arnott,  in  his  interesting  work  on  Physical  Philosophy, 
makes  the  following  remarks : — 'Persons  not  understand- 
ing the  law  which  we  are  now  illustrating,  will  express 
surprise  that  wind  or  air  blowing  down  upon  them  from  a 


THE    WEATHER. 


215 


snow-clad  mountain  should  still  be  warm  and  temperate. 
The  truth  is,  that  there  is  just  as  much  heat  combined 
with  an  ounce  of  air  on  the  mountain  top  as  in  the  valley  ; 
but  above,  the  heat  is  diffused  through  a  space  perhaps 
twice  as  great  as  when  below,  and  therefore  is  less  sen- 
sible. It  may  be  the  same  air  which  sweeps  over  a  warm 
plain  at  the  side  of  a  mountain  ,  —  which  then  rises  and 
freezes  water  on  the  summit,  —  and  which  in  an  hour 
after,  or  less,  is  playing  among  the  flowers  of  another 
valley,  as  a  warm  and  gentle  breeze.' 

2.    CURRENTS    OF    THE    AIR. 

(a)  Great  Current  from  East  to  West. 

It  is  well  known  that  near  the  equator  there  is  a  con- 
stant wind  blowing  from  east  to  west.  This  is  called 
the  Trade  Wind  ;  and  its  regularity  is  such  as  is  difficult 
for  us  to  conceive,  who  live  in  a  country  where  the 
variableness  of  the  wind  is  proverbial.  Through  the 
Indian,  Atlantic,  and  Pacific  Oceans,  this  wind  blows 
almost  unceasingly.  It  is  interrupted  by  the  land  in 
many  places,  and  in  different  seasons  it  blows  with 
greater  or  less  degrees  of  violence.  North  and  south  of 
the  equator,  too,  it  changes  from  an  east  to  a  northeast 
and  southeast  wind. 

The  cause  of  this  wind  is  the  following.  Let  N  S 
represent  the  poles,  and 
E  Q,  the  equator.  Now 
a  portion  of  air  at  a,  re- 
volving with  the  earth  in 
the  direction  of  the  arrow, 
moves  at  the  rate  of  about 
ten  miles  an  hour;  where-  E 
as  another  portion  at  6, 
upon  the  equator,  moves 
at  the  rate  of  fifteen 
miles  an  hour,  on  account 
of  its  revolving  in  a 
greater  circle.  Now  in 
consequence  of  the  heat  upon  the  equator,  the  air  is 
rarefied  and  rises,  and  the  air  from  a,  comes  down  to 
supply  the  vacancy.  It  has  however  an  eastward  velocity 
of  only  ten  miles,  while  that  part  of  the  earth  to  which  it 


216  THE    WEATHER. 


comes  is  moving  much  more  swiftly.  It  will  of  course  be 
left  behind.  In  other  words  it  will  appear  to  move 
towards  the  west.  This  is  the  explanation  of  that  great 
aerial  current  which  is  constantly-flowing  from  east  to 
west  over  all  the  equatorial  regions. 

The  Gulf  Stream  is  one  remarkable  consequence  of 
this  wind  :  and  another,  quite  as  striking,  is  seen  in  its 
effects  on  the  nature  and  length  of  sea  voyages,  and  the 
tracks  of  ships.  These  winds  are  so  regular  that  seamen 
sometimes  go  much  out  of  their  direct  course  to  meet  or 
to  avoid  them ;  and  persons  not  aware  of  this  fact  are 
much  surprised  in  reading  accounts  of  voyages  to  find 
the  ships,  whose  adventures  they  are  following,  sometimes 
very  far  from  the  track  which  it  might  have  been  sup- 
posed they  would  pursue. 

(6)  Monsoons. 

In  various  parts  of  the  earth,  within  the  tropics,  there 
are  periodical  winds  which  blow  six  months  in  one 
direction  and  six  months  in  the  opposite.  They  are 
called  Monsoons.  It  is  unnecessary  for  our  present 
purpose  more  particularly  to  describe  them,  than  to  say 
that  they  prevail  most  extensively  in  various  parts  of  Asia, 
and  especially  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Indian  Ocean. 
When  they  change  in  the  spring  and  autumn,  the  winds 
are  for  some  time  variable  and  violent,  and  the  aspect  of 
the  sea  and  skies  very  unfavorable  to  navigation. 

(c)  Land  and  Sea  Breezes. 

In  warm  climates  there  is  on  the  shore  of  the  sea  a 
breeze  blowing  towards  the  land  in  the  night,  and  towards 
the  sea  in  the  day.  The  cause  is  obvious.  The  land 
becomes  heated  by  the  sun,  and  the  air  rises  from  it,  and 
a  fresh  supply  comes  in  from  the  sea  to  fill  the  vacancy  ; 
for  the  sea,  not  reflecting  the  sun's  rays  so  strongly, 
does  not  heat  the  air  over  it  so  soon.  In  the  night,  how- 
ever, the  current  is  reversed.  The  land  becomes  cooler 
than  the  sea,  and  the  atmosphere  moves  from  the  warmer 
to  the  cooler  region.  The  following  very  happy  illustra- 
tion of  this  process  has  been  quoted  many  times  in  books 
on  this  subject  It  is  so  clear  and  complete  that  it 
deserves  to  be  perpetuated. 


THE    WEATHER.  217 


'  Take  a  large  dish,  fill  it  with  cold  water,  and  into 
the  middle  of  this  put  a  little  plate  filled  with  warm  water, 
the  first  will  represent  the  ocean,  the  latter  an  island 
rarefying  the  air  above  it. 

'  Blow  out  a  wax-candle,  and  if  the  place  be  still,  on 
applying  it  successively  to  every  side  of  the  dish,  the 
smoke,  being  visible  and  very  light,  will  be  seen  to  move 
towards  the  plate,  and,  rising  over  it,  point  out  the  course 
of  the  air  from  sea  to  land.  Again,  if  the  ambient  water 
be  warmed  and  the  plate  filled  with  cold  water,  when 
the  smoking  wick  of  the  candle  is  held  over  the  centre 
of  the  plate,  the  contrary  will  happen,  and  show  the 
course  of  the  wind  from  land  to  sea.' 

(d)   Variable  Winds. 

In  the  Temperate  and  Frozen  Zones  on  each  side  of 
the  equator,  the  winds  are  variable.  Great  efforts  have 
been  made  to  study  their  changes  so  as  to  predict  the 
weather ;  but  these  efforts  have  been  almost  entirely 
fruitless.  There  seems  to  be  some  faint  connexion 
between  the  changes  of  the  moon  and  those  of  the  wind. 
Whether  this  arises  from  any  influence  of  the  moon  itself, 
or  of  the  tides  of  the  ocean,  occasioned  by  the  motions 
of  the  moon,  or  of  the  great  Aerial  Tides,  which,  though 
not  obvious  to  us,  are  equal,  real,  and  certain,  is  a  point 
on  which  the  weatherwise  are  not  agreed.  We  shall 
make  no  farther  remarks  on  this  point  but  only  present 
our  readers  here  with  one  or  two  descriptions  of  violent 
winds  which  have  occurred  "in  the  latitudes  in  which  we 
live.  The  following  account  of  a  hurricane  in  Hun^ 
tingfordshire,  Sept.  8,  1741,  is  unquestionably  true. 

'The  storm  seemed  not  to  be  thirty  yards  high  from 
the  ground,  bringing  along  with  it  a  mist,  rolling  along 
with  such  incredible  swiftness,  that  it  ran  about  a  mile 
and  a  half  in  half  a  minute.  It  began  exactly  at  twelve 
o'clock,  arid  lasted  about  thirteen  minutes,  eight  minutes 
in  full  violence  :  it  presently  uncovered  the  house,  and 
some  of  the  tiles  falling  down  to  windward,  were  blown 
in  at  the  sashes  and  against  the  wainscot  on  the  other 
side  of  the  room.  The  broken  glass  was  blown  all  over 
the  room ;  the  chimneys  all  escaped,  but  the  statues  QA 


218  THE    WEATHER. 


the  top  of  the  house,  and  the  balustrades  from  one  end  to 
the  other,  were  all  blown  down. 

The  stabling  was  all  blown  down,  except  two  little 
stalls.  All  the  barns  of  the  parish  except  those  that 
were  full  of  corn  quite  up  to  the  top,  were  blown  flat  on 
the  ground,  to  the  number  of  about  sixty.  The  dwelling 
houses  escaped  best,  there  were  not  above  twelve  blown 
down,  out  of  near  one  hundred.  If  the  storm  had  lasted 
five  minutes  longer,  almost  every  house  in  the  town  must 
have  been  down  ;  for  they  were  all  in  a  manner  rocked 
quite  off  from  their  underpinings.  All  the  mills  in  the 
country  were  blown  down.  Hay-stacks  and  corn-stacks 
were  some  quite  blown  away,  some  into  the  next  corner 
of  the  field.  Wherever  it  met  with  any  boarded  houses, 
it  seemed  to  exert  more  than  ordinary  violence  on  them 
and  scattered  their  wrecks  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  to 
the  northeast  in  a  line.  '  I  followed,'  says  the  gentleman 
who  furnished  the  account,  'one  of  these  wrecks;  and 
about  150  yards  from  the  building,  found  a  piece  of 
a  rafter,  many  feet  long,  and  about  six  inches  by  four, 
stuck  upright  two  feet  deep  in  the  ground.  At  the  dis- 
tanpe  of  400  paces  from  the  same  building,  was  an  inch 
board,  nine  inches  broad,  fourteen  feet  long;  these  boards 
were  carried  up  into  the  air,  and  some  were  carried  over 
a  pond  about  thirty  yards  ;  and  a  row  of  pales  as  much  as 
two  men  could  lift,  were  carried  two  rods  from  their 
places,  and  set  upright  against  an  apple  tree.  Pales  in 
general  were  all  blown  down,  some  posts  broke  off  short 
by  the  ground,  others  torn  up  by  the  stumps.  The  whole 
air  was  full  of  straw;  gravel  stones  as  large  as  the  top 
of  my  little  finger,  were  blown  off  the  ground  in  at  the 
windows ;  and  the  very  grass  was  blown  quite  flat  on  the 
ground.  After  the  storm  was  over  I  went  out  into  the 
town,  and  such  a  miserable  sight  I  never  saw;  the  havoc 
above  described ;  the  women  and  children  crying ;  the 
farmers  all  dejected  ;•  some  blessing  God  for  the 
narrowness  of  their  escape,  others  wondering  how  so 
much  mischief  could  be  done  with  one  blast  of  wind, 
which  hardly  lasted  long  enough  for  people  to  get  out  of 
their  houses.  The  storm  was  succeeded  by  a  profound 
calm,  which  lasted  about  an  hour,  after  which  the  wind 
continued  pretty  high  till  ten  o'clock  at  night.' 


THE    WEATHER.  219 


How  such  sudden  and  violent  gusts  of  wind  are  to 
be  accounted  for  is  not  satisfactorily  ascertained.  They 
are  much  more  frequent  in  mountainous  and  in  tropical 
countries,  than  in  other  parts  of  the  earth. 

The  following  statement  may  be  relied  upon  as  fact. 
The  account  was  furnished  for  this  treatise  by  an  eye 
witness. 

Hurricane  in  the   West  Indies. 

'  In  the  fall  of  the  year  1780,  a  very  severe  hurricane 
visited  the  westerly  part  of  the  island  of  Jamaica.  In 
the  morning  of  the  day  which  was  so  destructive,  the 
sky  was  cloudy,  and  the  clouds  wild  in  their  appearance;  , 
the  wind  from  the  north  and  east.  About  one  o'clock, 
while  at  dinner,  the  wind  was  so  violent  as  to  blow  down 
one  of  the  negro  houses,  and  in  a  short  time  the  rest  of 
them  in  succession.  After  this,  a  building,  containing 
the  cane  after  the  juice  is  taken  from  it,  was  blown  down 
in  like  manner.  Aware  of  our  own  danger,  every 
measure  was  taken  to  secure  the  doors  and  windows, 
knowing  that  our  own  security  depended  upon  prevent- 
ing the  wind  entering  the  house.  For  a  few  hours  we 
succeeded  ;  but  at  last  a  door  or  window  was  blown  in  ; 
and  in  a  very  short  time  the  whole  of  the  house,  except- 
ing the  southwest  room,  was  blown  away  from  the  ground 
floor.  Before  this,  however,  we  had  made  our  escape 
out  of  the  southerly  door,  and  sought  our  protection  be- 
hind another  building,  to  the  southwest  of  the  house, 
where  we  remained  till  about  midnight.  The  wind  then 
subsided,  and  there  was  an  appearance  of  entire  calm  ; 
we  availed  ourselves  of  this  to  return  to  the  southwest 
room,  and  to  put  on  what  dry  clothes  we  could  collect, 
buf  before  we  had  completed  this,  the  storm  was  renewed, 
and  blew  with  equal  violence  as  before  from  the  south 
and  west,  and  carried  off  the  remaining  room,  and  ex- 
posed us,  without  protection,  to  its  fury;  our  only  resource 
was  the  cellar,  which,  with  great  difficulty,  we  reached; 
every  building  on  the  estate  was  destroyed,  and  the  roads 
rendered  impassable  for  ten  days.  A  remarkable  circum- 
stance occurred  on  an  adjoining  estate  :  the  buildings  on 
this  estate  were  placed  at  the  foot  of  two  hills,  with  a 


220  THE    WEATHER. 


deep  gully  between  the  hills.  A  plank  windmill  was  ex- 
posed to  the  wind,  which  came  down  this  gully,  and 
with  such  violence  as  to  carry  a  shingle  from  a  dis- 
tant building  in  such  a  direction  as  to  enter  the  plank  of 
the  windmill  three  quarters  of  an  inch;  a  piece  of  the 
plank,  with  the  shingle  in  it,  was  put  on  board  the  Ville 
de  Paris;  to  be  deposited  in  the  British  Museum.  The 
Ville  de  Paris  was  lost,  and  with  it  the  evidence  of  this 
fact. 

The  swell  of  the  sea  was  so  great  from  the  violence  of 
the  wind,  that  a  ship  of  about  four  hundred  tons  was  car- 
ried on  the  land  about  eighty  rods  from  the  shore  ;  this  was 
the  only  habitation  for  many  of  the  distressed  inhabitants 
of  Savanna  le  Mar  till  they  could  rebuild.  There  were 
many  almost  miraculous  escapes ;  arid  farther  scenes  of 
distress  which  it  would  be  difficult  to  describe.' 

The  variable  winds  which  blow  in  different  parts  of  the 
earth,  are  sometimes  productive  of  very  striking  effects, 
owing  to  peculiar  circumstances.  If  the  current  comes 
from  a  dry  and  sandy  country  it  is  of  course  dry  and 
scorching  ;  —  and  the  reverse.  There  is  the  hot  sirocco, 
—  the  damp  and  chill  east  wind  of  New  England  ;  —  the 
refreshing  sea  breeze  ;  —  and  the  fatal  simoom.  We  shall 
give  but  one  specimen  of  these;  —  it  is  the  harmattan,  a 
current  which  derives  a  drying  and  withering  influence 
from  passing  over  the  arid  sands  of  Africa.  It  blows 
from  the  interior  towards  the  western  coast. 

'  Extreme  dryness  is  an  extraordinary  property  of  this 
wind.  No  dew  falls  during  the  continuance  of  the  har- 
mattan ;  nor  is  there  the  least  appearance  of  moisture  in 
the  atmosphere.  Vegetables  of  every  kind  are  very 
much  injured  ;  all  tender  plants,  and  most  of  the  pro- 
ductions of  the  garden,  are  destroyed  :  the  grass  withers 
and  becomes  like  hay ;  vigorous  evergreens  likewise  feel 
its  pernicious  influence  ;  the  branches  of  the  lemon, 
orange,  and  lime  trees  droop,  the  leaves  become  flaccid, 
wither,  and,  if  the  harmattan  continues  to  blow  for  ten 
or  twelve jlays,  are  so  parched  as  to  be  easily  rubbed  to 
dust  between  the  fingers.  The  fruit  of  these  trees,  de- 
prived of  its  nourishment,  and  stinted  in  its  growth  only 
appears  to  ripen,  for  it  becomes  yellow  and  dry,  without 
acquiring  its  usual  size.  The  natives  take  the  opportu- 


THE    WEATHER.  221 


nity  afforded  by  the  extreme  dryness  of  the  grass  and 
young  trees,  to  set  fire  to  them,  especially  near  their 
roads,  not  only  to  keep  the  roads  open  to  travellers,  but 
to  destroy  the  shelter  which  long  grass,  and  thickets  of 
young  trees  would  afford  to  skulking  parties  of  their  ene- 
mies. A  fire  thus  lighted  flies  with  such  rapidity  as  to 
endanger  those  who  travel.  A  common  method  of  es- 
cape is,  on  discovering  a  fire  to  windward,  to  set  the 
grass  on  fire  to  leeward  and  then  follow  your  own  fire. 
There  are  other  extraordinary  effects  produced  by  the 
extreme  dryness  of  the  harmattan.  The  covers  of  books 
even  closely  shut  up  in  a  trunk,  and  lying  among  clothes, 
are  bent  as  if  they  had  been  exposed  to  the  fire.  House- 
hold furniture  is  also  much  damaged ;  the  pannels  of 
doors  and  of  wainscot  split  and  any  veneered  work  flies  to 
pieces.  The  joints  of  a  well  laid  floor  of  seasoned  wood 
open  sufficiently  to  lay  one's  finger  in  them ;  but  become 
as  close  as  before  on  the  ceasing  of  the  harmattan .  The 
seams  also  in  the  sides  and  decks  of  ships  are  much  in- 
jured, and  the  ships  become  very  leaky,  though  the 
planks  are  two  or  three  inches  in  thickness.  Iron  bound 
casks  require  the  hoops  to  be  frequently  driven  tighter  ; 
and  a  cask  of  rum  or  brandy  with  wooden  hoops,  can 
scarcely  be  preserved  ;  for  unless  a  person  attend  to  keep 
it  moistened,  the  hoops  fly  off. 

'  The  parching  effects  of  this  wind  are  likewise  evi- 
dent on  the  external  parts  of  the  body.  The  eyes,  nos- 
trils, lips  and  palate,  are  rendered  dry  and  uneasy,  and 
drink  is  often  required,  not  so  much  to  quench  thirst,  as 
to  remove  a  painful  aridity  in  the  fauces.  The  lips  and 
nose  become  sore,  and  even  chapped;  and  though  the 
air  be  cool,  yet  there  is  a  troublesome  sensation  of  prick- 
ling heat  on  the  skin.' 

(e)  Force  of  Winds. 

This  instrument  by  which  the  force  and  velocity  of 
winds  is  measured  is  called  a  wind  gage,  or  anemometer. 
It  is  constructed  as  follows.  A  B  C  E  is  a  bended  tube, 
large  at  A,  which  side  is  to  be  turned  towards  the  wind. 
The  part  F  B  C  E  is  filled  with  water  or  some  other 
liquid  less  likely  to  freeze,  and  the  whole  apparatus  is 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  ix.         20 


THE    WEATHER. 


supported  in  such  a  manner  by  the  stand  D,  as  to  turn 
with  the  wind,  so  that  the  orifice  A  is  turned  towards  it. 
The  pressure  of  the  breeze  now  upon  the  surface  of  the 
water  at  F,  forces  it  down  in 
the  great  tube,  and  conse- 
quently up  in  the  small  tube, 
C  E.  The  height  to  which 
it  rises  may  be  observed  on 
the  scale  at  E,  and  indicates 
the  force  of  the  wind.  The 
tube  at  B  C  is  made  very 
small,  in  order  to  prevent  sud- 
den fluctuations  of  the  sur- 
face of  the  water  at  E.  The 
force  and  velocity  of  the  wind 
may  both  be  obtained  with 
a  good  degree  of  accuracy 
by  this  instrument.  The 


drawing  is,  however,  not  intended  to  be  an  accurate  de- 

lineation of  the  instrument,  but  only  a  sketch,  illustrating 

its  construction. 

The  following  Table  will  give  the  reader  some  idea  of 

the  velocity  of  different  winds,  and  the  force  which  they 

exert  upon  the  surfaces  which  they  press  : 

Mile*  per 

Feet  per 

Perpendicular  force  on  one  square  foot,  in  Avoirdupois 

Hour. 

Second. 

Pounds  and  Parts. 

1 

1  47 

005        Hardly  perceptible. 

2 
3 

2  93 
44 

020 
044 

Just  perceptible. 

4 
5 

587 
733 

079 
123 

Gently  pleasant. 

10 
15 

1467 
22 

492 
1  107 

Pleasant,  brisk. 

20 
25 

2934 
3667 

1968 
307b 

Very  brisk. 

30 

4401 

4  429 

35 

51  34 

6027 

High  wind. 

40 
45 

5868 
6601 

7873 
9963 

Very  high  wind. 

50 

7335 

12300    '    Storm  or  tempest. 

60 

8802 

17715        Great  storm. 

80 

11736 

31  490        Hurricane. 

100 

1467 

4Q  9f»n   $    Hurricane  that  tears  up  trees  anc 
w*w   I       carries  buildings  before  it. 

It  is  by  these  means  that  the  vapors  drawn  up  iont 


THE    WEATHER.  223 


the  atmosphere  from  the  sea,  are  wafted  in  every  direction 
over  the  surface  of  the  earth.  This  distribution  goes 
constantly  forward,  and  the  air,  however  transparent  and 
apparently  free  from  moisture,  is  indeed  always  loaded 
with  these  invisible  vapors.  This  is  evident  from  the 
following  experiment. 

In  a  summer's  day  place  an  empty  tumbler  upon  the 
table,  and  it  remains  hour  after  hour,  dry.  Pour  now 
cold  water  into  it  until  it  is  half  filled,  and  the  moisture, 
condensed  by  the  cold,  will  stand  in  dew  drops  upon  the 
outside  of  the  glass.  The  same  effect  will  be  produced 
if  any  other  cold  substance  is  introduced  into  warm  air. 
There  are  two  ways  by  which  the  vapors,  thus  dif- 
fused throughout  the  air,  are  made  to  fall.  These  we 
shall  describe. 

3.    CONDENSATION. 

(a)   Condensation  by  Cold. 

Such  is  the  constitution  of  our  atmosphere,  that  it  will 
receive  into  itself  much  more  moisture  when  warm  than 
when  cold.  The  consequence  of  this  is  that  if  warm  air, 
previously  loaded  with  moisture,  becomes,  from  any  cause, 
cold,  it  can  no  longer  retain  that  moisture  in  transparent 
solution.  It  consequently  assumes  again  the  form  of 
water,  —  small,  very  small  drops  of  water,  —  too  minute  to 
be  seen  singly  by  the  naked  eye, —  but  forming  altogether 
a  hazy  appearance,  which  we  call  fog,  or  mist,  or  cloud, 
according  to  circumstances.  There  are  many  ways  in 
which  this  principle  is  illustrated. 

The  breath  which  proceeds  from  our  lungs  is  always 
loaded  with  moisture.  It  is  nevertheless  invisible  unless 
in  a  cold  day,  when  it  appears  in  the  form  of  a  cloud 
issuing  from  the  mouth.  This  apparent  cloud  does  not, 
however,  appear  to  commence  precisely  at  the  lips.  The 
warm  air  must  proceed  a  little  distance  before  it  is  so 
mixed  with  the  cold  air  around  as  to  have  the  effect 
produced. 

When  in  cold  weather,  green  wood  is  burnt  for  fuel, 
a  cloud  of  visible  vapor  issues  from  the  top  of  the 
chimney.  That  is,  the  vapor,  which  was  invisible  as  it 
comes  from  the  fire,  and  as  it  passes  up  the  flue  of  the 


224  THE    WEATHER. 


chimney,  because  the  air  which  carried  if.  teas  warm, 
becomes  visible  as  soon  as  it  is  exposed  to  the  cold  air 
above.  It  will  be  observed  in  this  case  as  in  the  other, 
that  the  condensation  does  not  take  place  until  the  vapor 
has  ascended  a  foot  or  two  above  the  top  of  the  chimney. 
A  short  time  since  a  large  congregation  were  assembled 
in  a  church  in  Boston  at  an  evening  lecture.  The  heat 
and  moisture  produced  within  the  house  by  the  crowd, 
began  to  be  very  great ;  and  when,  towards  the  close  of 
the  evening,  tho  door  was  opened,  the  cold  air  rushed  in 
and  produced  such  a  condensation  of  moisture  in  the  air 
that  it  was  mistaken  for  smoke  and  produced  a  momen- 
tary alarm  of  fire. 

(6)   Condensation  by  the  Rarefying  of  the  Air. 

It  is  observed  that  generally  when  from  any  cause  the 
air  becomes  rarefied,  there  is  a  tendency  to  condensation 
of  the  moisture  which  it  contains.  It  has  been  previously 
shown  that  when  the  air  becomes  rarefied  by  diminution 
of  the  pressure  upon  it,  (see  page  114)  its  temperature  is 
diminished.  Now  perhaps  the  condensation  of  the 
vapor  is  owing  to  this  cooling  of  the  atmosphere,  though 
it  is  on  the  whole  probable  that  the  diminution  of  density 
has  a  direct  influence. 

A  proper  consideration  of  this  principle  will  explain 
the  fact  at  which  so  much  surprise  is  sometimes  expressed, 
namely,  that  storms  move  against  the  wind.  That  is, 
a  northeast  storm  begins  in  New  Orleans  and  works  its 
way  against  the  ivind  to  Boston.  This,  however,  instead 
of  being  surprising,  is  precisely  what,  with  a  little  reflec- 
tion, we  should  have  been  accustomed  to  expect.  The  air 
over  Mexico  is  rarefied  by  the  sun,  and  rises.  The 
atmosphere  from  Louisiana  rushes  in  to  supply  the 
vacancy.  Virginia  then  and  the  states  around  it  must 
send  on  a  supply  to  Louisiana.  New  York  must 
part  with  a  portion  of  her  atmosphere  to  fill  the  void  in 
Virginia  ;  and  a  breeze  from  New  England  to  New  York 
closes  the  process.  Now  it  will  be  evident  that  the  rare- 
faction which  commenced  at  the  southwest  gradually 
will  extend  towards  the  northeast,  and  as  it  advances, 
will  produce  condensation,  that  is,  rain.  But  the  wind  at 


THE    WEATHER.  225 


each  particular  point  through  the  whole  distance  will 
blow  in  the  contrary  direction,  i.  e.  from  the  northeast. 
This  accords  with  well  known  facts. 

These  principles  in  regard  to  the  condensation  of  the 
vapors '  of  the  atmosphere,  will  explain  a  vast  variety  of 
facts. 

A  family  sit  during  a  winter's  evening  by  their  fireside, 
and  their  breath  fills  the  air  of  the  room  with  moisture. 
In  the  night  the  windows  become  intensely  cold,  and  the 
water  thus  diffused  becomes  condensed  upon  the  glass  in 
beautiful  icy  crystals,  called,  usually,  frost  upon  the 
windows. 

In  a  summer's  day  the  sun,  by  warming  the  atmosphere, 
brings  up  into  it  a  large  supply  of  vapor.  In  the  eve- 
ning the  grass  and  the  buildings  become  cool,  and  the 
moisture,  previously  diffused,  becomes  condensed  in  drops 
of  dew,  which  load  the  herbage  to  a  degree  proportioned 
to  the  warmth  of  the  preceding  day,  and  to  the  coolness 
of  the  night. 

A  portion  of  air  having  been  lying  upon  the  surface  of 
the  earth,  until  it  is  almost  saturated  with  moisture,  at 
length  rises.  It  expands  as  it  ascends,  —  can  no  longer 
retain  its  vapor  in  an  invisible  form,  —  and  floats,  alight 
fleecy  cloud,  through  the  sky. 

In  a  similar  case  the  condensation  proceeds  farther. 
Instead  of  merely  forming  those  minute  globules  which 
are  too  light  to  fall  and  too  small  to  be  separately  visible, 
the  water  gathers  into  visible  drops,  which  form  in  the  air 
a  black  and  heavy  mass,  or  descend  in  showers  of  rain. 
If  they  fall  through  a  very  cold  stratum  in  their  descent, 
they  freeze  into  balls  of  ice  :  or  if  the  stratum  of  air  in 
which  the  condensation  takes  place  is  very  cold,  the  vapor 
shoots  into  icy  crystals,  which  descend  as  snow. 

In  an  afternoon  in  August  a  river  loads  the  air  above  it 
with  moisture.  The  chill  of  the  night  cools  the  whole 
mass,  and  in  the  morning  we  find  lying  upon  the  stream 
a  bank  of  fog,  which  the  sun's  rays  cause  to  vanish,  but 
which  they  do  not  remove.  The  warmth  of  the  sun  enables 
the  air  to  hold  in  transparent  solution  the  water  which  was 
visible  before 

'Beyond  Cape  Town,'  says  Arnott, 'as  viewed  from 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  ix.          20* 


226  THE    WEATHER. 


the  bay,  there  is  a  mountain  of  great  elevation,  called, 
from  its  extended  flat  summit,  the  Table  Mountain.  In 
general  its  rugged  steeps  are  seen  rising  in  a  clear  sky ; 
but  when  the  southeast  wind  blows,  the  whole  summit 
becomes  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of  singular  density  and 
beauty.  The  inhabitants  call  the  phenomenon  the 
spreading  of  the  table-cloth.  The  cloud  does  not  appear 
to  be  at  rest  on  the  hill,  but  to  be  constantly  rolling 
onward  from  the  southeast :  yet,  to  the  surprise  of  the 
beholder,  it^never  descends,  for  the  snowy  wreaths  seer, 
falling  over  the  precipice  towards  the  town  below,  vanish 
completely  before  they  reach  it,  while  others  are  formed 
to  replace  them  on  the  other  side.  The  reason  of  the 
phenomenon  is,  that  the  air  constituting  the  wind  from 
the  southeast,  having  passed  over  the  vast  southern  ocean, 
comes  charged  with  as  much  invisible  moisture  as  its 
temperature  can  sustain.  In  rising  up  the  side  of  the 
mountain,  it  is  rising  in  the  atmosphere,  and  is  therefore 
gradually  escaping  from  a  part  of  the  former  pressure  ; 
and  on  attaining  the  summit  it  has  dilated  so  much,  and 
has  consequently  become  so  much  colder,  that  it  lets  go 
a  part  of  its  moisture.  This  then  appears  as  the  cloud 
BOW  described  :  but  it  no  sooner  falls  over  the  edge  of 
the  mountain,  and  again  descends  in  the  atmosphere,  to 
where  it  is  pressed,  and  condensed,  and  healed  as  before, 
then  it  is  re-dissolved  and  disappears :  the  magnificent 
apparition  thus  dwelling  only  on  the  mountain  top.' 

Such  are  the  general  principles  by  which  the  changes 
of  cloud  and  rain,  sunshfhe  and  storm,  —  and  all 
those  meteorological  phenomena  which  occur  in  the 
atmosphere  are  regulated.  There  are,  however,  many 
particular  and  striking  results  to  which  we  should  be 
glad  to  direct  the  attention  of  our  readers,  so  far  as  our 
limits  will  permit.  The  subject,  however,  which  must 
principally  attract  our  attention  must  be  the  effects  of 
electricity. 

4.     THUNDER    AND    LIGHTNING. 

The  various  phenomena  which  are  to  be  classed  under 
the  head  of  electricity,  and  of  which  the  thunder  is  one, 
are  very  imperfectly  understood.  Some  facts,  and  the 


THE    WEATHER.  227 


principles  explaining  them,  have  been  thoroughly  inves- 
tigated ;  but  others  baffle  all  human  efforts. 

There  is  a  certain  something,  called  by  philosophers 
electric  fluid,  which  is  diffused  naturally  over  all  bodies. 
It  is  in  the  chair  in  which  I  sit, —  in  the  table, —  the  paper, 
—  my  hand,  —  in  a  word,  in  everything.  In  its  natural 
state  it  is  equally  and  generally  diffused  and  produces  no 
sensible  effects.  But  there  are  certain  causes  which  colled 
it.  When  it  is  thus  accumulated  in  one  place  .or  upon 
one  body,  it  produces  very  striking  results :  one  of  the 
most  remarkable  of  which  is,  it  tends  to  dart  away  into 
the  surrounding  objects,  with  a  bright  spark  and  a  noise. 
This  can  be  easily  imitated  on  a  small  scale  with  the 
electrical  machine  ;  and  it  is  this  agent,  operating  pre- 
cisely in  this  way,  but  with  tremendous  energy  and 
splendor,  which  so  often  terrifies  us  in  the  skies. 

Among  the  processes  by  which  the  electric  fluid  is 
accumulated,  and  thus  prepared  to  produce  these  sensible 
effects,  one  of  the  principal  is,  the  condensation  of  vapor, 
as  described  on  a  preceding  page.  This  is  shown  by  a 
simple  electrical  experiment  which  it  is  not  necessary  to 
describe  particularly  here.  But  it  is  considered  as  estab- 
lished, that  whenever  the  vapor  of  the  atmosphere  is 
condensed,  electricity  is  collected,  and  tends  to  dart  off 
into  surrounding  objects.  Whenever  a  cloud  is  formed 
in  the  sky  it  probably  becomes  more  or  less  charged  with 
electricity. 

Now  it  is  one  remarkable  property  of  this  electric  fluid, 
that  some  substances  easily  convey  it  away  and  others  do 
not.  The  former  are  called  Conductors,  the  latter  Non- 
Conductors.  The  metals  and  water  are  the  conductors  : 
almost  all  other  substances,  non-conductors. 

Whenever  the  electric  fluid  is  collected  in  any  place, 
if  there  is  a  conductor,  or  a  chain  of  conductors,  to 
convey  it  away,  it  passes  off  silently  and  without  any 
sensible  effect.  If  there  are  no  conductors,  it  accumu- 
lates until  it  becomes  excessive  in  quantity,  and  then  it 
darts  off  through  the  air  or  any  substances  which  are  in 
its  way,  —  sometimes  with  great  violence  and  often  doing 
irreparable  injury. 

We  do  not,  however,  always  have  thunder  and  lightning 
when  clouds  form  in:the  sky.  When  a  fog  rolls  in  from 


228  THE    WEATHER. 


the  east  its  vapors  lie  in  contact  with  the  earth  and 
ocean,  and  the  electricity  passes  off  silently  as  fast  as  it 
accumulates.  In  a  long  continued  storm  the  clouds 
cover  the  whole  heavens,  and  extend  over  a  region  of 
many  miles ;  and  they  form  so  slowly  that  there  is  oppor- 
tunity for  a  gradual  escape  of  the  fluid.  But  when,  in 
a  sultry  summer  afternoon,  black  masses  of  cloud  rise  in 
the  west,  —  forming  very  rapidly,  and  with  rounded  and 
well  denned  boundaries,  —  the  fluid  then  accumulates 
faster  than  it  can  escape,  and  after  a  time  it  darts  to  the 
earth,  or  from  cloud  to  cloud,  producing  the  terrific 
effects  which  we  so  often  see.  Splendid  and  appalling 
as  these  results  sometimes  are,  they  are  imitated  precisely, 
but  harmlessly,  by  the  apparatus  of  the  lecturer.  The 
fluid  is  the  same  in  its  movements  and  in  its  character, 
whether  it  sparkles  on  the  table  or  thunders  in  the  skies. 

When  it  darts  to  the  earth,  its  aim  is  to  pass  Uirough 
the  best  conductors  it  can  find  on  its  way.  Hence  it 
strikes  a  tree ;  that  is,  it  chooses  to  come  down  through 
the  juices  of  the  trunk ;  for  it  will  be  recollected  that 
water  was  said  to  be  a  conductor.  It  often  seeks  a  way 
through  the  walls  and  partitions  of  a  house,  because  it 
finds  there  metallic  or  watery  substances  which  help  it 
forward.  But  it  must  be  remembered  that  it  strikes  these 
subjects  only  so  far  as  they  furnish  it  a  passage  way  to 
the  place  for  which  it  is  destined.  The  common  idea 
that  a  penknife,  or  other  metallic  body,  attracts  the  light- 
ning is  erroneous.  A  lightning  rod  suspended  horizon- 
tally in  the  air  would  not  attract  lightning.  It  is  only 
when  it  forms  a  connexion  between  the  place  where  the 
electricity  is,  and  that  towards  which  it  tends  to  move. 

The  following  remarkable  case  will  illustrate  the  prin- 
ciple. The  truth  of  the  statements  may  be  relied  on. 
We  extract  it  from  the  Lon.  Phil.  Trans. 

Remarkable  Case  of  a  House  Struck  by  Lightning. 

1  Thomas  Olivey,  a  respectable  farmer,  had  returned 
from  the  field,  about  a  quarter  before  twelve  o'clock,  and 
had  all  his  family  round  him  in  the  kitchen,  except  his 
daughter,  who  was  in  the  hall.  There  was  a  pan  over 
the  fire  in  the  kitchen  chimney,  full  of  boiling  water. 
The  farmer  was  sitting  by  the  fire,  and  his  wife  on  a 


THE    WEATHER.  229 


bench  before  it;  their  only  son,  twentythree  years  of 
age,  was  standing  at  the  window,  when  it  lightened  much, 
and  the  first  clap  of  thunder  followed.  This  was  so  vio- 
lent that  the  back  door  of  the  kitchen,  which  opened  to 
the  north,  quivered.  The  farmer  called  to  his  son,  and 
desired  him  not  to  stand  so  near  the  window,  lest  the 
lightning:  should  hurt  his  eyes  ;  on  which  the  young  man 
removed  from  the  window,  backwards,  into  the  corner  of 
the  room,  and  sat  down.  The  lightning  came  from  the 
west-north-west,  and  falling  on  the  stack  of  the  kitchen 
chimney,  which  was  about  four  feel  square,  and  as  much 
in  height,  of  hewn  stone,  carried  it  clear  off  from  the 
house,  and  threw  it  into  a  pool  of  water  twenty  feet  dis- 
tant. In  the  chamber  over  the  kitchen,  directly  beneath 
the  top  of  the  chimney,  there  was  a  little  closet  boarded 
in  ;  all  the  boards  were  broken  to  pieces,  the  timbers  of 
the  roof  were  shattered,  as  also  the  bedstead  in  the 
chamber.  Of  the  chamber  partition,  two  planks  were 
forced,  a  large  clothes-press  thrown  down,  and  the  south 
windows  of  the  chamber  floor  (excepting  the  casement) 
all  broken  and  blown  out.  From  the  top  of  the  chimney 
and  chamber  floor,  it  descended  into  the  kitchen  below, 
where  the  family  was.  The  farmer  saw  no  lightning1, 
nor  heard  any  thunder,  after  the  first  clap  before  men- 
tioned ;  but  was  struck  senseless  by  the  first  flashj  and 
thrown  into  the  middle  of  the  kitchen,  and  continued 
senseless  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour.  As  soon  as  he  came 
to  himself,  he  asked  who  struck  him  ;  but  had  not  the 
use  of  his  arms,  and  felt  an  aching  pain,  shooting,  as  be 
described  it,  into  his  bones.' 

A  still  more  striking  proof,  or  rather  illustration,  of  this 
principle,  is  furnished  by  the  following  case,  which 
occurred  in  Beverly  a  few  years  since,  and  which  is 
inserted  here  from  the  manuscript  of  an  eye-witness. 

Thunder  Storm  at  Beverly,  Mass, 

'  As  I  was  going  to  the  school-room,  which  was  to 
be  the  scene  of  my  afternoon's  labors,  I  observed  a 
large  black  cloud  rising  in  the  west  and  covering 
the  whole  side  of  the  heavens  with  its  black  shade. 
The  school  hour  arrived  just  as  it  began  to  rain, 


230  THE    WEATHER. 


and  by  the  time  that  the  boys  were  engaged  in  their 
work,  the  tempest  came  on  with  such  violence  as  to  put 
a  stop  to  almost  every  proceeding.  The  wind  blew  and 
the  rain  poured  down  so  as  to  make  a  complete  turmoil 
without,  and  the  thunder,  which  seemed  to  hover  directly 
over  our  heads,  and  to  be  bursting  all  around  us,  render- 
ed conversation  almost  perfectly  inaudible.  The  light- 
ning had  not  the  appearance  of  a  flash  diffused  through 
the  air,  but  it  glittered  on  the  seats  with  a  brightness 
which  almost  blinded  me.  and  immediately  upon  it  came 
the  peal,  so  loud  and  terrifying,  that  almost  every  face 
in  the  room  was  distorted  as  if  from  a  bodily  pain.  Du- 
ring this  time,  at  the  intervals  between  the  flashes,  the 
room  was  so  completely  darkened  as  to  render  it  impossi- 
ble to  see  to  write  even  the  large  hand  copies  which  were 
before  the  scholars.  I  have  heard  loud  thunder  before, 
but  never  seemed  to  be  so  completely  in  the  midst  of  it. 
It  appeared  to  keep  up  its  unceasing  rattling  all  around 
us,  without  intermission  or  abatement. 

'It  began  however  soon  to  look  less  dark.  —  the  peals 
followed  each  other  less  rapidly,  and  were  more  distant 
from  the  flashes  to  which  they  belonged, —  and  as  they 
passed  off  towards  the  east,  they  gradually  changed  their 
sharp  and  broken  rattling,  for  the  prolonged  rumbling 
sound  of  distant  thunder.  The  wind  died  away;  —  the 
rain  only  sprinkled  upon  the  windows  ;  —  a  broad  bright 
zone  was  rising  in  the  west ;  —  the  sun  soon  broke  forth  in 
it,  and  all  was  over.  The  cloud  lay  for  some  time  in 
the  east,  discharging  its  bolts  into  the  water,  and  then 
left  us  not  a  little  relieved  by  its  departure. 

*  I  was  soon  informed  that  the  lightning  'had  struck  in 
several  places  ;  to  one  house  particularly,  it  did  much 
injury,  and  destroyed  one  life.  The  next  morning  I 
went  to  visit  the  house,  and  found  it  in  the  situation  which 
I  will  attempt  to  describe. 

'  The  lightning  had  first  struck  the  chimney  ;  in  the 
garret  there  was  hanging  a  saw  from  one  of  the  rafters 
at  the  distance  of  a  few  feet  from  the  chimney;  the  saw 
reached  very  near  to  the  floor.  Nearly  under  that  part 
of  the  floor  over  which  the  saw  was  suspended,  there 
W^s  a  closet.  Now  it  happened  that  the  mistress  of  the 


THE    WEATHER.  231 


house  stood  a  few  moments  at  the  closet  with  her  head 
exactly  under  the  extremity  of  the  saw  ;  though  the  gar- 
ret floor  was  between  them.  This  was  in  the  second 
story ;  on  the  lower  story,  there  was  nearly  under  the 
place  where  the  woman  was  standing,  some  metallic  sub- 
stances, particularly  a  large  pair  of  tongs,  which  stood 
up  by  the  fire-place.  There  was  thus,  it  will  be  observed, 
a  continued  chain  of  conducting  substances,  extending 
from  the  top  of  the  house  to  the  ground,  and  the  light- 
ning pursued  precisely  the  track  prepared  for  it.  It  de- 
scended by  the  chimney,  ran  down  the  roof,  tearing  up 
the  shingles,  until  it  came  over  the  saw;  it.  passed  down 
the  saw  easily,  and  without  injury,  as  the  steel  was  a  good 
conductor.  It  then  perforated  the  floor,  making  several 
small  holes,  like  those  produced  by  a  gimlet.  It  passed 
through  the  body  of  the  woman  whom  it  instantly  de- 
prived of  life,  and  thence  found  its  way  through  the  me- 
tallic substances  in  the  kitchen  to  the  ground.  Another 
lady  sitting  at  the  window  of  the  room,  in  which  the 
woman  was  killed  was  not  injured  in  the  slightest  degree.' 
Such  is  the  account  of  this  very  clear  and  striking  in- 
stance of  the  unerring  certainty,  with  which  the  light- 
ning selects  its  path  through  the  best  conductors,  which 
it  finds  in  its  way.  A  saw  lying  horizontally,  would 
have  had  very  little  influence,  unless  it  should  even  in 
that  position,  form  part  of  a  connected  series  of  conduc- 
tors to  the  earth.  The  reason  why  one  person  was  safe 
in  the  immediate  vicinity  of  such  danger  was,  that  she 
was  out  of  the  series  of  conductors. 

We  have  from  these  and  other  similar  cases,  a  very 
simple  direction,  which  will  enable  us  to  avoid  danger, 
so  far  as  it  is  possible  to  avoid  it,  and  that  is,  take  such  a  po- 
sition that  the  body  shall  not  be  one  of  a  series  of  substances 
likely  to  conduct  the.  fluid.  More  particular  rules  cannot 
be  given,  for  the  circumstances  vary  so  much,  that  they 
would  be  of  very  limited  application ;  each  individual 
keeping  the  general  principle  in  view,  must  judge.  The 
middle  of  a  room,  or  lying  horizontally  upon  a  bed,  are 
for  obvious  reasons,  the  safe  position. 

It  may  here  be  observed  that  the  flash  and  report,  or 
which  is  the  same  thing,  the  lightning  and  thunder  are 


232  THE    WEATHER. 


precisely  at  the  same  moment,  and  one  never  takes  place 
without  the  other.  It  is  true  that  we  often  see  the  flash 
some  time  before  we  hear  the  sound,  and  so  do  we  often 
see  the  smoke  of  a  distant  gun,  long  before  we  hear  its 
report.  The  reason  is  not  that  they  are  in  reality  sepa- 
rated, but  because  light  travels  faster,  and  reaches  us 
sooner  than  sound  ;  and  as  the  apparent  separation  is  pro- 
portional to  the  distance,  the  latter  may  be  calculated 
pretty  accurately  by  observing  the  former.  It  is  true  also 
that  we  sometimes  see  a  cloud  in  the  evening  which  emits 
frequent  flashes  in  apparent  silence.  This  is  not  because 
it  is  a  different  species  of  lightning;  —  but  because  in  the 
darkness  of  the  hour,  the  light  may  be  seen  at  so  great  a 
distance  that  its  thunder  is  not  heard.  On  the  other 
hand,  when  the  cloud  rises  in  the  day-time,  we  hear  the 
thunder  first,  because  in  the  glare  of  the  sun,  the  flash 
must  be  vivid  before  it  can  be  seen.  The  phenomena 
are,  without  doubt,  in  all  cases  the  same;  and  when  the 
cloud  is  near,  the  peal  follows  instantaneously  upon  the 
flash ;  at  a  less  or  greater  distance  it  is  in  a  small  or 
great  degree  separated  from  it.  When  the  cloud  ap- 
proaches us  in  the  dark,  as  might  have  been  expected, 
we  see  the  light  before  we  hear  the  sound ;  and  when  it 
comes  in  bright  daylight,  the  peal  is  heard  before  the 
flash  is  ^visible. 

We  rave  thus  described  as  fully  and  to  as  great  an  ex- 
tent as  our  limits  will  permit,  the  principles  by  which  -the 
changes  of  the  weather  are  regulated.  We  must  not 
forget  the  great  object  of  the  whole,  which  is  to  take  up 
from  the  ocean  the  waters  which  rivers  and  streams  are 
continually  bearing  to  its  bosom,  and  distributing  them 
again  over  the  earth  to  refresh  and  to  fertilize.  In  con- 
sidering this  subject  we  know  not  which  mo>t  to  admire, 
the  skill  which  contrived  this  system,  or  the  omnipotent 
control,  which  confines  these  elements  of  agitation 
within  such  bounds,  that  they  seldom  encroach  upon  hu- 
man life,  or  even  disturb  the  peaceful  and  happy  em- 
ployments of  society. 


SCIENTIFIC   TRACTS. 


NUMBER    X. 


THE    ART    OF    BUILDING. 

SIR  CHRISTOPHER  WREN  has  remarked,  that  the  art 
of  building  has  its  political,  as  well  as  civil  use ;  and 
national  monuments  being  the  ornament  of  a  country,  it 
establishes  a  nation,  increases  population  and  commerce, 
makes  people  love  their  country,  which  is  the  origin  of  all 
great  actions  in  a  commonwealth. 

This  is  the  testimony,  not  only  of  one  of  the  best  archi- 
tects that  ever  lived,  but  of  a  very  wise  and  good  man, 
on  the  importance  and  utility  of  architecture  ;  we  there- 
fore consider  the  art  of  constructing  beautiful  and  per- 
manent edifices  one  of  the  most  important  occupations  of 
man.  If  architecture  is  so  important,  every  exertion 
should  be  made  to  advance  the  proper  understanding  of 
all  its  parts  ;  every  auxiliary  should  be  thoroughly  taught 
to  perfect  this  noble  art. 

The  advancement  of  our  country  in  the  arts  of  life  and 
civilization  has  been  most  rapid  and  successful,  as  is 
most  clearly  shown,  by  the  improvements  made  in  the  art 
of  building.  Within  twenty  years  a  progressive  and 
judicious  reform  has  been  made  in  the  architectural 
appearance  of  our  cities,  towns  and  villages ;  there  is  an 
improved  taste  manifest,  not  only  in  the  construction  of 
our  national  monuments  and  public  buildings,  but  also  in 
our  private  dwellings.  A  very  great  improvement  has 
also  been  made  in  the  durability  of  our  buildings,  sub- 
stituting for  wood  the  imperishable  materials  of  stone  and 
brick ;  and  these  improvements  are  in  no  small  degree 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  x.  21 


234  ART    OF    BUILDING. 


owing  to  the  increased  skill  of  our  masons,  not  only  in 
practice,  but  in  the  theory  of  their  art. 

Notwithstanding  the  improved  taste  and  skill,  mani- 
lest  in  the  art  of  building,  there  is  a  want  of  science 
among  our  masons,  when  compared  with  those  of  England 
and  France,  where  the  blind  routine  of  practice  is 
guided  by  the  light  of  science ;  where  as  much  learn- 
ing is  considered  necessary  to  construct  a  church  or 
bridge,  as  to  plead  a  cause  in  a  court  of  justice.  Our 
remarks  will  apply  equally  as  well  to  most  of  our  mechanic 
arts,  as  to  building  —  in  all  of  which,  science  is  the  only 
thing  required  to  render  them  equal  to  those  of  any 
country. 

The  want  of  science  among  our  mechanics  we  attri- 
bute entirely  to  the  want  of  proper  elementary  instruction, 
and  it  is  with  a  view  to  remedy  this  defect  in  one  trade, 
that  the  following  pages  have  been  prepared  —  not  for 
the  master  builder  only,  but  for  the  great  mass  of  our 
countrymen  ;  we  wish  to  spread  the  scientific  principles 
of  the  arts  and  trades  before  the  ichole  people.  We  wish 
that  every  mechanic  in  our, country,  may  not  only  know 
the  science  of  his  own  profession,  but  also  that  of  every 
other  with  which  his  own  is  in  any  way  connected, 
believing  that  this  knowledge  would  not  only  add  greatly 
to  his  pecuniary  gains,  but  vastly  increase  his  means  of 
happiness. 

1  In  a  short  way  we  propose  to  describe  the  principal 
materials  employed  by  the  mason  in  the  construction  of 
edifices,  with  a  brief  account  of  their  application  ;  to 
which  we  have  added  a  concise  description  of  the  prin- 
cipal manual  operations  of  the  mason's  trade. 

MATERIALS. 

Stone.  —  This  is  the  most  durable  material  of  which 
buildings  can  be  constructed.  There  are  various  kinds 
of  stone  which  are  used  for  building  in  the  United 
States,  such  as  limestone,  granite,  gneiss,  sieniie,  and 
sandstone.  Limestone  is  used  extensively  in  New  York, 
Pennsylvania,  and  some  other  stales.  Granite  is  used 
abundantly  in  the  New  England  states,  where  it  is  found 
in  great  abundance.  Sienite  is  used  extensively  in  and 
near  Boston.  Gneiss  is  principally  used  for  cellar  and 


ART    OF    BUILDING.  235 


foundation  walls.  Sandstone  is  used  for  building  in 
almost  every  part  of  the  country. 

Limestone  is  of  several  kinds — granular  limestone 
(Marble)  and  compact  limestone  (common  limestone)  are 
the  two  principal  varieties.  All  limestone  is  essentially 
composed  of  carbonic  acid,  (dead  orjixcd  air)  and  quick 
lime  ;  it  is  of  various  colors  —  white,  gray  and  veined. 
This  stone  may  be  distinguished  from  all  other  building 
stone,  by  putting  a  small  piece  into  diluted  sulphuric 
acid,  when  it  will  effervesce  or  bubble  like  soda  water, 
which  is  caused  by  the  acid  combining  with  the  lime, 
and  thereby  setting  the  carbonic  acid  gas  free.  It  is 
about  2^  times  heavier  than  water. 

Among  all  the  kinds  of  limestone  used  in  building, 
marble  holds  the  first  place,  both  as  respects  durability 
and  beauty.  Marbles  are  principally  used  for  interior 
decorations.  The  principal  kinds  are  the  following. 

1.  White   marble,    which  is    used    for  statuary    and 
interior  decorations  ;  the  coarser  kinds  are  often  used  for 
exterior  walls  ;  the  City  Hall  in  New  York,  and  the  State 
Prison  at  Sing-Sing,  in  New  York,  are  examples  of  this 
species.     This  kind   of  marble    is    found  in    Vermont, 
( Middlelury )   Rhode  Island,   (Smithfield)  and    Massa- 
chusetts, as  well  as  many  other  places. 

2.  Colored  marble  is  of  many  shades,  and  is  used  prin- 
cipally   for   interior  decorations.     It  is  found  in    abun- 
dance in  most  parts  of  the  country. 

3.  Breccia  marble  is  that  kind  of  marble  which  is  ap- 
parently made  up  of  different  sized  fragments  imbedded 
in  different   colored    cements,  the  fragments    are  of  all 
sizes  and    shapes ;    and   when  polished    present   a  very 
beautiful  appearance.     The  most  beautiful  variety  in  this 
country  is  found  on  the  Potomac  river,  fifty  or  sixty  miles 
above  Washington  city.     It  is  used  for  interior  decora- 
tions.    The  shafts  of  the  columns  in  the  Representatives' 
Hall,  in  the  Capitol,  are  formed  of  this  marble  ;    they  are 
nineteen    feet   nine  inches    in  height,  and    two   feet   in 
diameter  at  the  base.     There  are  many  other  varieties  of 
marble,  but  they  are  seldom  used  by  the  mason. 

Granite.  —  This  is  one  of  the  best  materials  for  the 
construction  of  buildings,  and  is  composed  of  three 
substances,  feldspar,  quartz,  and  mica ;  it  is  gra- 


236  ART    OF    BUILDING. 

nular,  the  grains  varying  from  the  size  of  a  pin's  head  to 
that  of  a  nut  or  even  larger. 

The  color  of  granite  depends  upon  the  feldspar,  which 
is  white,  gray,  yellow,  green,  &c  ;  the  predominant  color 
is  gray ;  its  beauty  for  building  depends  upon  the  inti- 
mate mixture  of  the  white  feldspar  and  black  mica. 
Granite  is  not  generally  acted  upon  by  fire  or  water,  nor 
does  the  frosts  of  our  winters  affect  it ;  it  is  about  two  and 
a  half  times  heavier  than  water. 

Granite  is  found  extensively  distributed  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  earth.  It  forms  the  principal  part  of  the 
highest  mountains,  and  is  found  in  low  places,  in  beds,  or 
what  are  called  ledges;  single  blocks  of  granite  are 
found  resting  upon  loose  earth. 

Beautiful  varieties  of  granite  for  building  are  found  in 
Maine,  New  Hampshire  and  Massachusetts. 

Granite  is  used  by  the  mason  for  the  construction  of 
whole  edifices,  and  for  window  and  door  stools  and  caps, 
also  for  ashlar ;  in  some  situations  it  is  used  undressed, 
for  foundations,  cellar-walls,  &,c. 

Sienite  resembles  granite  in  its  external  characters, 
but  differs  from  it  in  being-  essentially  composed  of  feld- 
spar  and  hornblende;  sometimes  it  contains  quartz  and 
mica.  Feldspar  is  the  principal  ingredient  in  sienite. 
This  stone  is  much  less  abundant  than  any  other  stone 
which  is  used  for  building;  it  is  found  in  the  vicinity 
of  Boston,  where  it  is  extensively  used.  The  Stone 
Chapel  and  Tremont  House  in  Boston,  the  State 
Prison  (old)  in  Charlestown  are  built  with  sienite.  This 
stone  received  its  name  from  Siena,  a  city  in  Egypt, 
whence  the  Romans  obtained  it  for  building  and  statuary. 

Gneiss  resembles  granite  in  its  appearance,  and  is 
of  the  same  composition,  but  differs  from  it  in  always 
being  more  or  loss  slaty,  and  when  viewed  in  the  mass, 
appears  to  be  formed  of  layers  of  different  colors.  Gneiss 
is  a  hard  rock,  and  answers  very  well  for  cellar  and  foun- 
dation walls. 

Sandstone  (Ores  of  the  French,  Freestone,)  is  com- 
posed of  grains  of  quartz  united  together  by  a  cement, 
which  is  variable  in  quantity  and  quality ;  it  may  be 
limey,  clayey,  or  even  silicious.  The  texture  of  some 
sandstones  is  loose  and  porous,  while  some  are  hard  and 


ART    OF    BUILDING.  237 


compact.  The  most  common  kinds  for  building  are  red, 
white  and  gray.  In  New  England  the  red  sandstone  is 
extensively  used  by  the  mason  for  jambs,  hearths,  door 
and  window  caps ;  there  are,  however,  some  kinds  of 
sandstone  which  are  easily  affected  by  the  frost,  and  of 
course  should  not  be  used  in  our  climate.  We  may  ob- 
serve several  specimens  of  this  in  Boston,  in  which  the 
frost  has  caused  them  to  crumble  to  pieces. 

These  stones  are  extracted  from  quarries  or  from  single 
beds.  In  quarrying  limestone  gunpowder  is  necessary 
in  detaching  the  stone  at  first,  after  which  it  is  split  with 
wedges.  Granite  is  quarried  by  means  of  wedges  only 
when  taken  from  single  blocks,  gunpowder  is  used  when 
in  large  masses,  Sandstone  is  generally  found  in  layers, 
and  it  is  quarried  with  the  pick,  wedge  and  lever.  Gneiss, 
generally,  only  requires  the  wedges  and  hammer. 


Brick  is  the  next  most  durable  material  to  stone  for 
building.  Bricks  are  made  of  clay  mixed  with  a  certain 
portion  of  sand  ;  the  quality  of  the  brick  depends  mainly 
upon  the  proportions  of  these  ingredients;  if  there  is  too 
much  clay,  they  shrink  greatly  in  burning,  and  if  too 
much  sand,  the  bricks  are  brittle  and  heavy.  The  proper 
tempering  of  the  raw  material  has  another  great  effect 
upon  the  quality,  which  is  most  effectually  done  by  means 
of  a  pttg-mill  instead  of  the  rude  contrivance  of  our  New 
England  brickmakers.  This  mill  consists  of  a  hollow, 
upright  cone,  the  interior  being  set  with  knives  arranged 
in  a  spiral  form  ;  in  this  cone  an  upright  shaft  is  placed, 
armed  in  the  same  manner  with  knives,  having  a  pivot  at 
the  bottom  on  which  it  revolves.  The  clay  being  put  in 
at  the  top  and  a  horse  attached  to  the  shaft,  the  knives 
cut,  separate,  and  most  admirably  prepare  it  for  the 
moulder's  bench. 

Bricks  are  burned  in  kilns  in  this  country,  which,  pre- 
vious to  the  fire  being  applied,  are  covered  with  a  coat  of 
clay  and  sand  ;  this  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat  keeps 
it  in.  A  kiln  forty  bricks  long,  thirtyseven  wide  and 
thirty  high,  will  require  about  sixty  cords  of  pine  wood, 
or  about  half  a  cord  to  a  thousand.  The  heat  in  burning 

VOL.  i.  — NO,  x.  21* 


ART    OF    BUILDING. 


bricks  should  be  applied  gradually,  till  it  attains  its  great- 
est height,  because  a  sudden  application  would  cause  the 
bricks  to  break  as  they  are  bad  conductors  of  heat. 

Bricks  are  of  several  kinds,  as  rnarls,  stocks,  and  place. 
The  finest  marls  are  called  Jirsts,  and  are  used  for  arches; 
the  next  best  are  called  seconds,  and  are  used  for  fronts. 
Stocks  are  similar  to  seconds,  and  are  used  for  the  same 
purposes.  Place- bricks,  samel  or  salmon,  are  such  as 
were  on  the  outside  of  the  kiln,  and  arc  not  thoroughly 
burned,  consequently  are  pale  and  soft.  There  are  also 
burrs  or  clinkers,  which  are  such  as  were  too  violently 
burned. 

There  is  another  division  of  bricks  founded  upon  a 
difference  in  the  manufacture,  viz.  pressed  and  impressed, 
or  common  bricks. 

Pressed  bricks  are  such  as  after  being  partially  dried, 
are  subjected  to  mechanical  pressure,  and  then  are 
burned,  which  increases  their  density  und  beauty. 

The  use  of  bricks  in  constructing  buildings  is  of  the 
highest  antiquity.  The  Jirsl  bricks  made  by  man  were 
rude  masses  of  clay,  hardened  in  the  sun ;  afterwards, 
they  were  regularly  shaped.  The  tower  of  Babel  or 
Belus,  was  built  of  sun-dried  bricks.  The  ruins  of  Babylon 
are  of  the  same  material.  The  ruins  of  a  pyramid  near 
Grand  Cairo  in  Egypt,  erected  by  Asychis,  is  of  unburnt 
bricks.  The  ancient  Greeks  and  Romans  used  the 
same  material  in  their  edifices  —  the  walls  of  the 
temple  of  Jupiter  and  Hercules  —  the  palace  of  Croesus 
at  Sardis,  &c.  Augustus  (wasted  that  he  found  Rome 
of  brick  and  left  it  of  marble.  The  Roman  bricks  were 
square  and  triangular,  the  last  being  just  half  of  a  square 
one  cut,  diagonally,  and  formed  the  outsides  of  the  walls, 
the  square  ones  being  laid  diagonally  across  the  thickness 
of  the  wall. 

Mortar.  —  Mortar  is  made  of  quicklime  and  sand,  each 
of  which  we  shall  describe. 

Lime  is  the  soul  of  masonry,  and  is  the  principal  sub- 
stance used  for  joining  stones  and  bricks  together  in  the 
construction  of  masonry. 

Quicklime  is  obtained  by  the  calcination  of  limestone, 
the  heat  driving  off  the  water  and  carbonic  acid. 
Limestone  is  generally  contaminated  with  alumina 


ART    OF    BUILDING.  239 

(day),  magnesia,  and  the  oxides  of  iron  (iron  rust  4*c, 
sometimes  with  sulphate  of  lime  (lime  and  oil  of  vitriol 
called  gypsum,  or  plaster  of  Paris)  when  the  limestone  is 
hard  enough  to  scratch  glass  it  contains  quartz,  when  of 
a  brown  or  red  color  it  contains  oxide  of  iron,  when  it 
effervesces  slowly,  producing  a  milky  appearance  it  con- 
tains magnesia ;  and  when  black  with  a  bad  smell  it  con- 
tains coaly  substances.  Magnesia  and  clayey  substances 
impair  the  quality  of  the  quicklime  by  preventing  its 
setting  wtU. 

The  hardest  limestones  make  the  best  quicklime. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  quicklime  used  by  masons, 
common  lime  and  hydraulic  or  water  lime  ;  the  latter  dif- 
fers from  the  former  in  containing  iron  and  manganese. 
The  best  common  lime  comes  from  Thomastown,  Me. 
A  good  hydraulic  lime  (cement)  manufactured  in  New 
York,  was  used  for  constructing  the  locks  of  the  Grand 
Canal. 

Lime  is  nature's  universal  cement,  and  is  employed 
frequently  in  an  immense  number  of  her  combinations. 
Besides  the  great  masses  of  limestone  on  mountains  as 
well  as  in  plains,  besides  the  great  variety  of  compound 
stony  substances,  widely  diversified,  of  which  it  forms 
an  essential  part,  it  is  found  in  vegetables.  The  bones 
and  shells  of  all  animals  are  formed  of  the  same  substance 
united  with  certain  acids. 

Sand  is  the  next  important  ingredient  of  mortar.  On 
the  quality  of  this,  essentially  depends  the  quality  of  the 
mortar,  and  if  it  contains  any  clay  or  mud,  or  is  brought 
from  the  shores  of  salt  waters,  it  is  unfit  lor  mortar 
until  it  is  washed,  because  the  clay  or  salt  will  prevent 
its  setting,  these  substances  having  a  greater  affinity 
for  water  than  for  carbonic  acid.  The  sharper  and 
coarser  the  grain  of  the  sand,  the  better  the  mortar 
and  the  less  lime  is  required,  which  of  course  diminishes 
the  price  ;  it  should  be  a  general  rule  to  use  no  more  lime 
than  what  is  just  necessary  to  cover  every  particle  of  the 
sand. 

The  celebrated  Rondelet,  a  French  engineer,  and  Mr 
Smeaton,  the  builder  of  the  Eddystone  light-house,  made 
numerous  experiments  on  mortar.  The  following  are 
some  of  their  conclusions. 


240  ART  OF  BUILDING. 


1.  Pit  sand,  mixed  with  lime,  makes  a  better   mortar 
than  river  sand. 

2.  Pit  sand,  fresh  dug,  makes  a  better  mortar  than  that 
made  of  the  same  sand  dried  in  the  sun. 

3.  A  mixture  of  lime  and  old  mortar  as  cement,  forms 
a  better  mortar  than  the  best  sand  and  lime. 

4.  The  darkest  colored  sand  makes  the  best  mortar. 
It  would  be  vain  for  us  to  attempt  giving  any  rules  as 

to  the  proper  proportions  of  sand  and  lime  to  form  a  good 
mortar,  owing  to  the  various  qualities  of  the  lime  ;  if  it  is 
perfectly  pure  and  caustic,  fifty  parts  of  sand  to  one  of  lime 
would  be  the  proper  proportions  ;  but  the  most  common 
proportions  in  this  country  are  two  parts  of  sand  to  one 
of  lime.  In  this  country  our  masons  err  greatly  in  using 
too  little  sand,  and  in  not  mixing  what  they  do  use  tho- 
roughly and  intimately  with  the  lime.  The  quality  of  the 
mortar  depends  essentially  upon  the  slacking  of  the  lime  ; 
it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  that  every  particle  of  the 
lime  be  thoroughly  slacked  ;  if  any  parts  of  it  are  mixed 
up  before  it  is  slacked,  the  water  continuing  to  act  upon 
it,  will  cause  it  to  expand,  and  in  plastering  will  cause 
blisters.  But  a  small  quantity  of  lime  should  be  slacked 
at  a  time  unless  it  is  protected  from  the  air,  as  it  will 
absorb  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  air,  which  injures  the 
mortar. 

Cement  Puzzolanas,  Tarras.  —  For  the  construction  of 
masonry  in  water,  a  peculiar  kind  of  mortar  is  necessary 
— common  mortar  will  not  harden  in  water.  For  lining 
reservoirs  or  tanks,  common  mortar  may  be  used,  if  they 
are  suffered  to  dry  and  harden  before  the  water  is  let  in. 
For  hydraulic  works,  cement,  puzzolanas  and  tarras  are 
mixed  with  lime,  which  forms  a  mortar  that  sets  immedi- 
ately in  water.  There  are  various  kinds  of  cement.  The 
Roman  cement  which  comes  from  England,  is  composed 
principally  of  a  calcined  marl.  The  Dutch  cement  is 
tarras  and  lime,  one  of  the  former  to  two  of  the  latter. 

Puzzolana  is  the  production  of  volcanoes,  and  is  com- 
posed principally  of  marl,  and  is  found  in  Italy.  Green- 
stone calcined  and  powdered,  mixed  with  lime  and  sand, 
formed  the  mortar  with  which  the  famous  Eddystone 
lighthouse  was  constructed  by  Smeaton. 

Grout  and  Grubbstone  mortar.  —  Grout  is  nothing  more 


ART    OF    BUILDING.  241 


than  thin  mortar,  and  is  generally  poured  upon  masonry 
to  fill  up  all  the  interstices. 

Grubbstone  mortar  is  made  of  water,  lime,  sand,  and 
small  rough  fragments  of  stone  ;  it  is  used  for  founda- 
tions and  other  works  in  water  ;  it  is  sometimes  employed 
for  filling  up  between  the  two  faces  of  a  wall,  to  render 
it  water  tight. 


Having  detailed  in  a  brief  manner  the  different  mate- 
rials used  by  the  masons,  we  now  proceed  to  show  their 
application. 

Masonry  is  the  art  of  forming  cut  stone,  rubble  or 
brick  into  masses  by  means  of  mortar  or  plaster  ;  of 
course,  there  are  several  kinds  of  masonry  —  the  two 
principal  however,  are  Regular  and  Irregular. 

Regular  masonry  is  formed  of  stones  or  bricks  of  a 
regular  form.  The  object  of  all  kinds  of  masonry  is  to 
form  with  a  number  of  pieces  of  stone  or  brick,  one  mass 
which  shall  have  the  eolidity  of  a  single  block. 

The  ancients  employed  stones  of  a  much  greater  size 
than  are  used  at  the  present  time.  In  the  ruins  of  Per- 
sepolis  there  are  single  blocks,  weighing  over  500  tons. 
In  the  great  temple  of  Balbec,  there  are  single  blocks 
weighing  1000  tons. 

In  this  country  cut  stones  are  called  ashlar,  of  which 
most  of  our  stone  edifices  are  built,  the  stones  being 
of  various  length,  but  should  always  be  of  the  same  length 
for  the  same  building.  Where  the  face  stones  are  not  so 
thick  as  the  wall,  it  is  customary  to  fill  in  the  back  with 
rough  materials,  in  which  case  the  backs  of  the  face 
stone,  or  ashlar,  should  not  be  parallel  to  the  front  face, 
but  inclined  ;  and  every  stone  should  have  its  back  inclin- 
ed in  the  same  direction,  which  will  give  a  certain  lap  to 
each  course.  In  all  kinds  of  face  stone  work,  every 
course  should  have  a  number  of  thorough  stones  in  it, 
that  is,  stones  which  go  through  the  wall  ;  these  are  ne- 
cessary to  the  stability  of  the  work. 

Brick  masonry  is  that  which  is  most  common  in  our 
country.  In  building  brick  work  in  dry  weather  the 
best  of  mortar  is  necessary,  and  the  bricks  should  be 
dipped  in  water  as  they  are  laid,  to  cause  them  to  adhere ; 


242  ART    OF    BUILDING. 


because  the  brick  being  porous  and  dry,  will  absorb  so 
much  of  the  water  from  the  mortar  as  to  prevent  its 
sticking. 

In  building  a  wall  of  any  kind,  not  more  than  four  or 
five  feet  of  any  part  should  be  built  at  a  time,  because 
as  we  have  stated  in  our  Tract  on  Heat,  the  mortar  shrinks 
on  becoming  solid  ;  and  if  one  part  of  the  wall  shrinks 
before  the  other  it  will  cause  a  rupture. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  bonds  used  by  masons.  Eng- 
lish and  Flemish.  The  English  bond  consists  of  a 
course  of  bricks  laid  -lengthwise,  then  another  under- 
wise  to  the  face  of  the  wall.  There  is  but  one  ob- 
jection to  this  bond,  which  is  the  difficulty  in  breaking 
joints,  which  requires  that  a  brick  should  be  broken  at  every 
course.  The  Flemish  method  consists  in  placing  a  head- 
er and  stretcher  alternately.  This  is  deemed  much  neat- 
er than  the  former  ;  but  in  the  execution  it  has  some  in- 
conveniences and  is  not  thought  to  be  so  firm  as  the  English. 

The  masons  of  Boston  adopt  a  different  bond,  they  lay 
five  or  seven  courses  of  stretchers  and  then  one  of  head- 
ers. This,  however,  is  thought  by  some,  must  yield  to 
the  English  and  Flemish,  not  only  in  beauty  and  prac- 
tice, but  greatly  in  strength,  because  there  is  not  a  suffi- 
cient bond  between  the  two  faces  of  the  wall. 

In  laying  all  kinds  of  stone  masonry,  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  each  stone  should  lay  on  its  natural  bed, 
otherwise  the  joints  will  flush,  and  frequently  the  stone 
will  break  ;  a  glaring  instance  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the 
front  of  St  Paul's  church  in  Boston,  where  the  stones  are 
ruptured,  in  consequence  of  this  very  fault.  It  is  also  of 
the  utmost  importance  that  each  bed  of  the  material 
should  be  perfectly  level  and  smooth,  otherwise  the  joints 
will  flush  out  and  ruptures  will  be  produced. 

Rubble  stone  masonry  is  such  as  is  made  of  unhewn 
stone  ;  it  may  be  laid  in  courses,  or  in  an  irregular  man- 
ner. In  coursed  rubble,  the  stones  are  all  gauged  to  the 
same  height,  but  in  uncoursed  rubble  the  stones  are  laid 
promiscuously  in  the  wall,  only  having  the  sharp  corners 
knocked  off. 

The  strength  and  durability  of  all  masonry  when  it 
has  been  laid  in  a  proper  manner,  with  good  lime,  de- 
pends entirely  upon  the  force  with  which  the  mortar  ad- 


ART    OP    BUILDING.  243 


heres  to  the  stones  or  bricks,  as  well  as  the  adhesion  of  its 
own  particles.  These  forces  are  greatly  augmented  by  age. 
The  following  table  shows  the  force  with  which  stone 
and  brick  adhere  together,  when  joined  by  good  mortar 
made  of  nine  parts  of  sand  and  one  of  good  lime. 

Two  pieces  of  Maine  granite,  hewn,   105  pounds. 
The  same  not  hewn,     ...     162 
Red  sandstone,  hewn,      -  -          159 

The  same  not  hewn,  -  -  -  166 
Sienite,  (Quincy)  hewn,  -  -  101 
The  same  not  hewn,  -  147 

Boston  unpressed  brick,    -         -          172 
ditto  pressed.     -         -         -         -     167 
These  had  all  been  united   nine  months,  and  placed  in  a 
dry  situation. 

The  following  appears  to  be  the  principle  on  which 
mortar  acts  as  a  cement  in  joining  masonry.  It  is  well 
known  that  when  quicklime  and  water  are  mixed  together,, 
the  lime  swells  and  falls  to  pieces,  and  is  soon  reduced  to  a 
fine  powder,  and  so  much  heat  is  produced  as  to  convert 
a  part  of  the  water  into  steam.  If  the  lime  be  weighed 
after  being  slacked,  it  will  be  found  to  have  increased  in 
weight,  which  is  owing  to  a  part  of  the  water  having  com- 
bined with  the  lime  and  become  solid  ;  of  course,  the 
water  has  parted  with  that  portion  of  its  heat  which 
caused  its  fluidity;  hence,  the  great  heat  produced  in 
slacking  lime  —  for  if  two  parts  of  powdered  quicklime 
and  one  part  of  powdered  ice  (both  at  32°  of  the  thermome- 
ter) be  mixed  together,  they  instantly  combine  and  their 
temperature  is  212°.  Here  the  increase  of  heat  comes 
from  the  ice.  When  large  quantities  of  lime  are  slacked, 
heat  and  light  are  produced  in  large  quantities  —  hence 
the  reason  vessels  and  buildings  filled  with  lime  are  often 
set  on  fire  by  the  water  getting  to  it.  This  combination 
of  lime  and  water,  is  called  a  hydrate  of  lime. 

When  the  hydrate  of  lime  is  forming,  if  the  black  ox- 
ide of  iron,  or  the  scales  ^thrown  from  it  when  hammered 
by  the  smith,  be  mixed  -with  burnt  clay  or  sand,  the 
mixture  becomes  harder  than  the  lime  would  alone,  which 
is  owing  to  a  certain  degree  of  chemical  attraction  be- 
tween the  hydrate  of  lime  and  these  substances. 


244  ART    OF    BUILDING. 


If  the  oxides  of  iron  or  burnt  clay  are  used,  the  mortar 
has  the  property  of  not  being  acted  upon  by  water,  and 
thus  forms  a  cement. 

Most  persons  must  have  observed  that  buildings  formed 
of  masonry,  require  to  have  their  joints  pointed  over  or 
refilled,  the  old  mortar  having  become  rotten;  this  is  ow- 
iug  to  the  action  of  moisture  and  the  carbonic  acid  gas 
'  which  is  in  the  air,  the  gas  having  united  to  the  lime  and 
formed  limestone,  and  thus  destroying  the  attraction  which 
the  hydrate  of  lime  had  for  the  sand,  which  causes  the 
mortar  to  crumble  and  fall  to  pieces. 

From  the  above  principles  we  may  explain  the  cause 
why  lime  exposed  to  the  air,  becomes  slacked  and  finally 
loses  its  properties  —  the  moisture  of  the  atmosphere 
combines  with  the  lime  and  slacks  it,  or  forms  a  hy- 
drate ;  the  carbonic  acid  gas  from  the  same  source,  then, 
combines  with  the  slacked  lime  or  hydrate,  and  forms  a 
carbonate  of  lime.  This  may  again  be  made  quicklime 
by  heating  it  violently,  which  expels  the  water  and  gas. 

FOUNDATIONS. 

Having  described  the  materials  used  by  the  mason,  and 
explained  the  principles  of  their  action  on  each  other,  we 
now  proceed  to  describe  some  of  his  operations  in  erect- 
ing a  building  or  other  work. 

The  laying  of  the  foundation  is  the  first  operation  in 
constructing  a  building,  and  is  the  most  important  part 
of  the  whole  work  ;  without  a  firm  foundation  it  is  in  vain 
for  the  mason  to  attempt  to  produce  a  permanent  building. 
Almost  every  city  in  our  country  can  show  the  pernicious 
effects  of  masonry  constructed  without  a  due  regard  to 
the  foundation.  Boston  can  show  some  lamentable 
instances,  where  rents  and  settlings  are  to  be  seen  from 
the  cellar  to  the  ridgepole. 

Wherever  it  is  intended  to  erect  masonry,  the  ground 
should  be  examined  with  an  iron  bar,  or  a  well  diggers' 
auger,  which  will  not  only  show  the  composition  of  the 
earth,  but  the  depth  at  which  solid  ground  is  found, 
which  will  determine  whether  the  earth  can  be  excavated 
to  the  solid  bottom  or  not. 


ART    OF  BUILDING.  245 


When  the  soil  is  loose  to  any  great  depth,  the  founda- 
tion may  be  well  established  by  turning  inverted  arches 
under  each  aperture  and  opening,  as  the  doors  and 
windows ;  by  this  means  the  foundation  is  rendered  per- 
fectly safe  and  solid,  because  the  sinking  of  the  piers  will 
carry  the  arches  with  them,  and  thus  push  the  ground 
under  them,  which  presses  it  against  the  under  sides  of 
the  arches ;  the  arches  of  course,  will  not  give,  it'  pro- 
perly constructed  :  where  this  expedient  is  noUised,  those 
parts  of  the  wall  which  are  under  the  apertures,  or  doors 
and  windows,  not  being  so  heavy  as  the  solid  parts  of  the 
wall,  will  be  left  behind  when  the  solid  parts  scttk-,  be- 
cause the  resistance  of  the  soil  will  keep  them  up,  causing 
fractures  in  the  wall,  and  frequently  in  the  window  caps 
and  sills. 

In  so  essential  part  of  a  foundation  as  the  arch,  great 
care  should  be  paid  to  its  curve,  and  the  curve,  called  a 
parabola,  should  be  used  in  preference  to  any  other ;  next 
to  this  the  semi-circle. 

The  most  common  method  in  this  country  is  to  estab- 
lish foundations  in  soft  earth,  upon  piles  ;  these  arc  driven 
into  the  ground,  and  the  foundation  stones  laid  upon 
them.  In  using  piles,  great  care  is  requisite  that 
they  be  driven  down  to  the  firm  bottom ;  it  some- 
times happens  that  the  piles  stop  before  they  have 
reached  the  solid  ground,  and  if  the  masonry  is  placed 
upon  them  in  that  state,  the  Avails  will  certainly  be  rup- 
tured —  therefore,  such  piles  should  be  left  a  short  time 
at  rest,  and  then  apply  the  pile  engine  and  it  will  drive 
them  down  to  the  firm  bottom :  this  stoppage  i?  pro- 
duced by  the  friction  of  the  pile  and  the  resistance  of 
earth.  An  important  instance  of  the  fracture  of  walls 
established  upon  piles  occurred  in  Boston  a  few  years 
since  on  Central  wharf. 

It  sometimes  occurs  that  a  foundation  is  required  to 
be  constructed  on  inclined  ground,  in  which  case  the 
walls  should  rise  in  a  series  of  level  steps.  This  will 
endure  a  level  and  firm  bed  for  the  building  walls,  and 
prevent  their  sliding,  which  they  would  be  apt  to  <;••>  in 
moist  situations,  thereby  causing  serious  fractures  if  not 
the  entire  destruction  of  the  building. 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  x.  '1- 


246  ART    OF  BUILDING. 

Where  a  foundation  is  laid  upon  piles,  it  is  important 
that  they  are  not  overloaded,  which  will  cause  their  rup- 
ture and  the  overthrow  of  the  building.  In  order  to  de- 
termine the  weight  which  each  pile  should  support  with- 
out bending,  we  must  know  the  total  weight  of  the  mass 
of  masonry  which  is  to  be  placed  upon  them,  together  with 
the  dimensions  of  the  piles,  from  this  we  may  determine 
the  number  of  piles.  The  total  weight  of  the  building 
may  be  asceitained  by  calculating  the  solid  contents  of 
the  walls  from  the  bottom  of  the  foundation  to  the  top  of 
the  building,  to  which  the  weight  of  the  wood- work  &-C, 
must  be  added,  and  the  doors,  windows  and  other  open- 
ings must  be  subtracted.  Having  found  the  cubic  con- 
tents of  the  masonry,  we  may  find  their  weight  by  knowing 
the  weight  of  one  cubic  foot  of  the  stone  or  brick,  or 
what  is  the  same  thing,  the  specific  gravity.  Specific 
gravity  may  be  defined  as  the  relative  weight  of  any 
body  when  compared  with  some  other  of  which  we  know 
the  weight,  one  cubic  foot  of  pure  rain  water  weighs  just 
1000  avoirdupois  ounces,  and  this  is  the  substance  with 
which  we  compare  the  weight  of  solid  bodies.  Example. 
How  much  will  one  cubic  foot  of  Chelmsford  granite 
weigh  more  than  one  cubic  foot  of  water  1  The  deter- 
mination of  this  is  determining  the  specific  gravity  of 
Chelmsford  granite.  If  we  could  cut  out  a  block  of  this 
stone,  exactly  one  foot  oh  each  side,  we  could  easily 
weigli  it,  but  this  cannot  be  done  for  practical  purposes, 
and  if  it  could,  we  may  arrive  at  the  same  conclusion 
much  easier. 

It  is  evident,  that  if  we  drop  a  piece  of  stone  or  brick 
into  a  tumbler  or  other  vessel  filled  with  rain  water,  the 
stone  will  displace  apart  of  the  water  just  equal  in  bulk 
to  itself,  and  if  the  stone  be  weighed  in  the  water  it  will 
be  found  to  have  lost  just  as  much  in  weight  as  the  water 
displaced  will  weigh,  therefore  we  have  the  weight  of  the 
piece  of  stone  and  the  weight  of  an  equal  bulk  of  water, 
which  is  the  specific  gravity.  Suppose  the  stone  weighed 
3i  pounds  out  of  water,  and  one  pound  in  the  water, 
here  the  bulk  of  water  equal  to  that  of  the  stone  weighs 
'  2^  pounds,  and  the  specific  gravity  in  the  relation  or  pro- 
portion between  2^  and  3iV  which  is  li  or  1.  4.  In  this 


ART    OF    BUILDING.  247 


way  we  may  determine  the  specific  gravity  of  any  body 
which  is  heavier  than  water. 

Knowing  the  specific  gravity  of  any  body  we  know 
the  weight  of  one  cubic  foot  of  it.  As  a  cubic  foot  of  wa- 
ter is  just  1000  ounces,  if  we  multiply  this  number  by  the 
specific  gravity,  we  have  the  weight  in  ounces  and  from 
thence  in  pounds,  Sec. 

The  following  table  of  specific  gravities  of  several  bo- 
dies will  answer  for  all  practical  purposes,  instead  of 
calculating  them  as  above. 


Iron,  wrought,         -  7645 

Iron,  cast,  -         -  7425 

Granite,  Maine,       -  2731 

Do,  Chelmsford,  2910 

Sienite,  Quincy,      -  3000 

Limestone,  -  2635 


Clay,     -         -         -  2160 

Brick  (impressed)  1980 

Brick  (pressed)   -  2050 

Earth,  common  about  1*J89 

Sand,  -         -  1520 

Sea  water,          -  1030 


Marble,  -         -    2840    Common  water,       -     1000 

Sandstone  (Freestone)  2435    Slate,         -         -          2541 

Note.  The  specific  gravity  of  water  is  here  called 
1000,  which  is  just  its  weight  in  ounces,  therefore  the 
numbers  in  this  table  express  the  weight  of  one  cubic 
foot  of  each  substance  in  ounces. 

From  the  above  principles  we  may  find  the  solid  con- 
tents of  any  irregular  body,  provided  we  know  the  weight 
and  specific  gravity.  The  above  numbers  in  the  table 
are  the  weights  of  one  cubic  foot  or  1728  cubic  inches 
in  ounces  ;  therefore  if  we  find  how  many  times  the  num- 
ber of  ounces  in  one  cubic  foot  is  contained  in  any  given 
weight,  we  find  how  many  cubic  feet  there  are  in  that 
given  weight,  the  remainder,  if  any,  reduced  to  inches 
and  divided  will  give  the  cubic  inches. 

Example.  Required  the  solid  contents  of  an  irregular 
block  of  sienite  which  weighs  281^. 

•Answer,  I!  cubic  feet. 

The  reverse  of  the  above  rule  we  have  explained,  that 
is,  to  find  the  weight,  knowing  the  dimensions  and  specific 
gravity,  multiply  the  solid  contents  in  feet  by  the  spe- 
cific gravity,  and  it  will  give  the  weight  in  ounces. 

Having  determined  the  weight  to  be  supported  by  the 
piles,  we  may  determine  their  number  and  size.  It  has 
been  found  from  experiments,  that  each  pile  should  not 


243  ART    OF    BUILDING. 


be  calculated  to  sustain  more  than  50,000  pounds  when  9 
inches  in  diameter.  The  piles  cannot  be  placed  nearer 
together  than  a  certain  distance,  if  they  are  the  ground 
will  be  so  much  compressed  as  to  render  the  driving  of 
them  very  difficult,  if  not  impossible ;  the  nearest  dis- 
tance at  which  they  can  be  placed  has  been  determined 
by  numerous  experiments  to  be  2£  feet  from  centre  to 
centre. 

It  is  well  known  that  a  piece  of  wood  will  resist  a 
pressure  on  its  end,  acting  in  the  direction  of  the  fibres, 
in  exact  proportion  to  its  number  of  fibres,  or  its  size  — 
but  its  length  has  some  influence  upon  its  resistance. 
It  has  been  found  that  as  pressure  is  increased,  the 
length  should  decrease  according  to  its  square ;  that  is,  if 
a  stick  of  timber  or  pile  be  25  feet  long  and  just  support 
1000  pounds,  if  the  pressure  be  increased  to  2000  pounds 
the  pile  must  be  decreased,  not  to  12^-  feet,  but  to  5  feet 
to  be  just  as  strong. 

Our  conclusions  then,  from  this  elementary  detail  of 
principles,  are  as  follows  ;  piles  should  never  be  placed 
nearer  together  than  2£  feet,  and  should  never  be  calcu- 
lated to  support  more  than  50,000  pounds. 

The  construction  of  stone  arches  is  the  most  difficult 
and  useful  part  of  the  practical  mason's  trade.  The  meth- 
ods now  in  use  for  finding  the  patterns  of  the  stones  for 
arches  of  various  descriptions,  are  not  only  laborious  but 
exceedingly  difficult  and  perplexing.  A  knowledge  of 
descriptive  geometry  as  applied  to  finding  these  patterns, 
would  be  an  important  acquisition  to  the  masons ;  by 
means  of  this  science,  what  requires  the  labor  of  weeks 
in  the  old  way,  may  be  performed  in  a  few  hours.  Our 
limits  will  nor  permit  us  to  explain  this  highly  important 
science,  as  it  would  require  the  space  of  two  or  three  tracts. 

Stone  Houses. — The  beauty  of  a  stone  building  depends 
mainly  upon  the  kinds  and  finish  of  the  stone,  and  where 
the  stones  are  handsomely. cut  and  in  proper  shape,  it 
leaves  scarcely  anything  to  be  desired.  Houses  and 
other  buildings  are  constructed  in  an  economical  manner, 
particularly  in  the  country,  of  rough  stone  of  any  kind, 
to  which  great  beauty  may  be  given  by  covering  them  on 
the  outside  with  plaster  or  cement.  For  this  kind  of 
construction  the  following  principles  should  be  adhered 


ART    OF    BUILDING.  249 


to.  Where  it  is  intended  to  construct  a  house  of  stone 
and  then  cover  it  with  cement,  the  face  of  the  walls 
should  be  left  as  rough  as  possible ;  therefore,  small 
stones  will  answer  better  than  large  ones ;  the  joints  on 
the  outside  should  be  left  as  open  as  possible,  and  no  small 
stones  or  mortar  should  be  put  in  between  them.  After  the 
walls  are  completed  the  cement  may  then  be  applied. 

The  cement  or  mortar  should  be  made  of  pure  lime, 
and  if  it  is  slacked  with  water  in  which  lime  has  been 
dissolved,  so  much  the  better ;  the  sand  should  be  pure 
and  coarse,  from  the  size  of  a  pea  to  the  head  of  a  large 
pin,  and  mixed  with  a  suitable  quantity  of  lime  and  hair. 
This  mortar  should  be  put  on,  and  floated  over  all  at  one 
operation,  and  should  be  done  as  quick  as  possible. 

Only  one  coat  should  be  applied,  as  another  would  not 
stick,  if  applied,  the  first  frost  would  take  it  off.  The 
plaster  may  afterwards  be  beautified  by  a  lime  wash 
made  of  milk  instead  of  water,  of  any  required  color  ; 
the  cheesy  part  of  the  milk  forms  with  the  lime  a  kind 
of  varnish  without  gloss,  which  is  not  acted  upon  by  wa- 
ter and  air. 

A  cement  put  on  as  here  directed  '^permanent  and 
will  stand  fifteen  or  twenty  years  without  repair. 

Stone  houses  are  not  only  the  most  durable  when  prop- 
erly built,  but  do  not  yield  in  beauty  to  those  of  any  other 
material,  and  where  stones  are  plenty,  they  are  the  most 
economical.  Stone  or  brick  houses  should  never  be 
plastered  upon  the  stone,  but  upon  lathes  fixed  to  fur- 
rings,  (see  article,  plastering). 

Chimneys.  — The  building  of  chimneys  has  always  been 
considered  a  very  important  part  of  the  mason's  trade. 
There  are  a  few  principles  which  we  conceive  may  be  of 
advantage  to  the  practical  man  in  this  part  of  building. 
Count  Rumford,  whose  experiments  on  the  economy  of 
fuel  and  heat  are  numerous  and  interesting,  says,  that 
the  back  of  the  chimney  should  never  exceed  two  thirds 
of  the  opening  in  front,  and  that  the  jambs  or  sides 
should  incline  to  the  back  in  an  angle  of  135  degrees,  or 
what  is  the  same  thing,  three  mitres  :  because  this  fare 
or  opening,  sends  out  more  heat  than  any  other  ;  which 
may  be  easily  explained  by  those  who  understand  the 

VOL,  i.  —  NO.  x.  22* 


250  ART   OF    BUILDING. 


elements  of  Plane  Geometry,  in  the  following  manner. 
Heat  moves  in  straight  lines,  perpendicular  to  the  hot 
body  or  fire,  therefore,  the  heat  from  the  ends  of  the  fire 
will  strike  the  jambs  at  the  same  angle,  on  one  side,  as 
the  jambs  and  back  make,  on  the  other  side  ;  the  angle 
will  be  just  45  degrees,  or  a  mitre.  This  is  the  angle  with 
which  a  ray  of  heat  strikes,  and  as  it  is  a  law  of  heat 
that  it  is  reflected,  or  will  fly  off,  at  the  same  angle  with 
which  it  strikes,  that  will  be  45  degrees  more ;  and  of 
course,  the  angle  between  the  striking  ray  and  the  re- 
flected ray  will  be  90  degrees,  or  two  mitres ;  and  as  no 
other  angle  but  135  degrees  will  give  these  proportions, 
this  must  be  the  true  flare  or  angle.  A  less  angle,  how- 
ever, may  be  used  according  to  the  size  of  the  room  and 
the  nature  of  the  fire,  whether  for  coal  or  wood  ;  for  a 
small  room  and  when  coal  is  to  be  used,  a  less  angle  will 
answer.  The  back  of  the  chimney  should  be  brought 
within  four  or  five  inches  of  the  mantel  bar,  or  breast  of 
the  fire-place,  for  the  following  reasons. 

It  is  known  that  the  smoke  ascends  in  a  chimney  in 
consequence  of  the  air  therein  being  rarefied  or  warmed, 
which  renders  it  lighter,  and  it  therefore  ascends  carrying 
the  smoke  with  it ;  this  warm  air  is  replaced  by  the  colder 
air  of  the  room  ;  by  this  means  a  current  is  produced,  and 
the  smaller  the  opening  (to  a  certain  point)  the  greater 
the  draught  or  current.  For  the  same  reason  the  flue 
should  be  placed  as  directly  over  the  fire-place  as  possible, 
and  should  be  straight  and  smooth  the  whole  extent;  the 
flue  should  be  about  14  inches  wide.  The  most  common 
material  for  fire-places  is  brick  and  jambs  of  sandstone, 
marble  or  soap-stone  (steatite)  is  now  used  extensively  ; 
this  is  far  preferable  to  sandstone  or  dark  colored  marbles, 
as  it  is  of  a  light  color,  takes  a  tolerable  polish,  and  be- 
comes hard  and  durable  by  exposure  to  heat.  Light 
colored,  polished  jambs,  are  the  best,  because  they  absorb 
less  heat  and  reflect  more  than  dark  colored  and  rough 
substances. 

It  sometimes  happens  that  chimneys  constructed  in  the 
above  manner,  will,  notwithstanding,  smoke,  particularly 
if  the  top  should  be  overtopped  by  some  other  building, 
as  in  that  case  eddies' of  air  are  produced  which  will 
drive  the  smoke  down  chimney ;  in  which  case  the 


ART    OF    BUILDING.  251 

chimney  must  be  raised  up  to  the  overtopping  object,  or 
covered  with  a  pot  or  cap  as  recommended  by  Mr  Tred- 
gold  of  England. 

His  method  consists  in  placing  in  the  top  of  the  chim- 
ney a  cap  of  brick  or  iron,  formed  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  the  top  opening  of  the  chimney  is  constructed  in 
size,  according  to  the  following  rule.  Divide  seventeen 
times  the  width  of  the  grate  or  fire-place  in  inches,  by  the 
square  root  of  the  height  of  the  chimney  in  feet,  the 
quotient  is  the  area  of  the  opening  at  the  top  in  square 
inches.  It  should  be  understood  however,  that  this 
opening  should  never  be  less  than  Cinches  in  diameter, 
and  seldom  more  than  6J- ;  —  the  inside  of  the  cap  or 
hood  should  be  rounded  off,  and  made  as  smooth  as  pos- 
sible, so  that  the  smoke  may  meet  no  obstacle.  This 
plan  is  very  general  in  Boston,  and  gives  a  neat  finish 
to  the  top  of  the  chimney,  as  well  as  prevents  it  from 
smoking. 

Measurement  of  Masonry. — Although  it  is  not  custom- 
ary at  the  present  day  for  masons  to  work  by  measure, 
yet  it  may  be  useful  to  know  the  rules  for  measuring 
stone  and  brick-work.  We  accordingly  give  a  few  of 
them. 

Stone  work  is  generally  measured  by  the  cubic  foot  or 
perch,  and  almost  every  city  has  its  particular  rules  as  to 
what  parts  of  the  work  shall  be  measured  in  taking  the 
dimensions,  therefore,  no  general  rule  can  be  given  for 
stone  work.  Brick  work  is  either  estimated  by  the  rod 
or  by  the  thousand  inches ;  therefore,  a  rod  of  brick 
work  is  16^  feet  square  and  1^  bricks  thick  or  13^  inches  ; 
therefore,  a  rod  of  brick  work  is  306  cubic  feet,  while  a 
perch  or  rod  of  stone  work  in  some  places  is  only  3l£ 
solid  feet ;  therefore,  for  brick  work  the  rule  is,  multi- 
ply the  area  of  the  wall  by  the  number  of  half  bricks  in 
thickness,  and  divide  by  816  and  the  quotient  is  rods,  and 
the  remainder,  if  any,  feet. 

A  rod  of  brick  work  laid  in  mortar  will  require  4500 
bricks,  a  cubic  yard  460.  For  paving,  a  yard  of  work, 
82  paving  bricks,  or  38  bricks  laid  flat,  are  required. 

Masons  and  others  are  frequently  called  upon  to  esti- 
mate the  quantity  of  materials  necessary  to  construct  any 
given  work  ;  this  may  be  easily  done  by  the  common  rules 


252 


ART   OF    BUILDING. 


of  arithmetic.  For  a  stone  building  it  must  be  done  in 
detail,  by  finding  the  number  of  stones  of  eacli  dimen- 
sion and  finish,  which  will  be  required. 

For  brick  work  it  is  different ;  we  have  only  to  find  the 
superficial  contents  of  the  building,  and  then  by  estima- 
ting 4500  bricks  to  each  square  rod,  when  the  wall  is  1^ 
bricks  thick,  we  have  the  total  number  required  ;  this  is 
the  number  with  a  proper  allowance  for  waste,  &c.  To 
facilitate  these  calculations,  the  following  table  is  here 
introduced. 


Area  of  the 
face  of  the 
wall. 

The  number  of  bricks  thick  and  the  quantity  required. 

1-2  brick.    I  brick.    1  1-2  brick.  |   2  bricks. 

2  1-2  bricks. 

1 

5 

11 

16 

22 

27 

2 

11 

22 

33 

44 

55 

3 

16 

33 

49 

66 

82 

4 

22 

44 

66 

88 

110 

5 

27 

55 

82 

110 

137 

6 

33 

66 

99 

132 

165 

7 

38 

77 

115 

154 

193 

8 

44 

88 

132 

176 

220 

9 

49 

99 

148 

198 

218 

10 

55 

110 

165 

220 

275 

20 

110 

220 

330 

441 

551 

30 

165 

330 

496 

661 

827 

40 

220 

441 

661 

882 

1102 

50 

275 

551 

827 

1102 

1378 

60 

330 

*  661 

992 

1323 

1655 

70 

386 

772 

1158 

1544 

1930 

80 

441 

882 

1323 

1764 

2205 

90 

496 

992 

1488 

1985 

2480 

100 

551 

[1102 

1654 

2205 

2757 

200 

1102 

2205 

3308 

4411 

5514 

300 

1654 

3308 

4963 

6617 

8272 

400 

2205 

54411 

6617 

8823 

11029 

500 

2757 

5514 

8272 

11  029 

13786 

600 

3308 

6617 

9926 

13  235 

16554 

700 

3860 

7720 

11  580 

15  441 

19301 

800 

4411 

8823 

13235 

17647 

22058 

900 

4963 

9926 

14889 

19852 

24816 

1000 

5514 

11029 

16544 

22058 

27  573 

2000 

11029 

22  058 

33  088 

44117 

55  147 

3000 

16544 

33088 

49632 

66  176 

82720 

4000 

22058 

44  117 

66176 

88  235 

110294 

5000 

27  573 

55147 

82  720 

110  294 

137867 

6000 

33  088 

66176 

99264 

132  352 

165  441 

7000 

38602 

77205 

115808 

154  411 

193  014 

8000 

44117 

88235 

132  352 

170  470 

220588 

9000 

49632 

99264 

148896 

198  529 

248  161 

10000 

55  147 

110294 

165  441 

220  588 

275735 

ART    OP    BUILDING.  253 


By  this  table,  the  number  of  bricks  required  to  con- 
struct any  given  work  may  be  found  immediately,  by 
knowing  the  superficial  contents.  Example.  —  Suppose 
a  building  to  contain  5873  square  feet,  how  many  bricks 
will  build  it,  supposing  the  walls  to  be  l£  bricks  thick  1 

4000  feet  will  require  -         -         -  GO, 176 

800  "     "         «••'"-        -        -  13,235 

70   "      «  ...  H58 

3  "      "        "        -        -        -  -      49 


4875  80,618 

Plastering. — In  New  England,  and  almost  all  other 
parts  of  the  country,  the  stone  and  brick  mason  is  a  plas- 
terer, to  whose  art  we  are  indebted  for  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  effect  produced  by  the  decorative  part  of 
architecture.  The  art  of  the  plasterer  is  necessary  in  the 
proper  finish  of  all  kinds  of  building. 

Great  care  is  requisite  in  the  preparation  of  the  mor- 
tar, or  stuff,  as  the  workmen  call  it ;  the  lime  should  be 
thoroughly  slacked,  or  soured,  before  the  sand  and  hair 
are  added.  Unless  the  lime  is  completely  slacked  it  is 
impossible  to  make  smooth  and  durable  work ;  the  best 
burnt  lime  will  require  the  maceration  of  several  days. 

In  making  mortar  for  plastering,  some  other  substances 
are  frequently  added  besides  lime,  sand,  and  hair,  accord- 
ing to  the  nature  and  uses  of  the  walls  to  be  plastered. 

The  most  common  cement  used  for  plastering  the  in- 
side walls  of  buildings,  common  mortar,  is  called  coarse 
stuff,  and  is  prepared  in  the  usual  way  with  the  addition 
of  hair. 

Next  to  this  is  fine  stuff,  which  is  formed  by  first  pro- 
perly slacking  the  lime  with  a  small  quantity  of  water, 
after  which  a  large  quantity  of  water  is  added  to  it  in  a 
tub,  where  it  should  remain  until  the  water  has  solar  evap- 
orated as  to  leave  the  lime  of  a  proper  consistency  for 
use  ;  commonly  about  three  parts  of  fine  sand  is  added  to 
three  parts  of  this  lime,  and  sometimes  a  little  hair,  and  is 
then  called  troiccllcd  stt/if'  or  bastard  stucco,  and  with 
this  stuff  all  walls  intended  to  be  painted  should  be  fin- 
ished. 

For  the  purpose  of  forming   cornices   and   mouldings 


254  ART    OF    BUILDING. 


with  a  wooden  mould,  a  different  cement  is  used  ;  it  con- 
sists of  fine  stuff,  as  above  three  fifths,  and  plaster  of  par- 
is  one  fifth,  mixed  with  a  proper  quantity  of  water.  But 
a  small  quantity  should  be  made  at  a  time,  as  it  sets 
very  quickly.  Where  great  expedition  is  required  the 
same  stuff  is  used  for  other  plastering. 

Plaster  of  Paris,  known  also  by  the  names  of  gypsum, 
and  sulphate  of  lime,  is  an  important  material  in  plaster- 
ing. The  best  method  of  preparing  this  substance  for 
the  use  of  the  plasterer,  is  to  select  the  purest  kinds  and 
burn  them  in  a  proper  place,  by  which  means  the 
water  and  sulphuric  acid  are  driven  off,  after  which  the 
stones  are  powdered  fine,  when  it  is  fit  for  use.  Care 
is  requisite  in  the  calcination  ;  too  much  or  too  little 
injures  its  qualities,  and  causes  it  to  become  soft  on 
exposure  to  the  air.  It  is  known  to  be  well  burned,  if,  on 
mixing  it  with  water,  it  has  a  soapy  and  sticky  feeling  to 
the  fingers.  If  it  has  not  these  qualities  it  is  not  worth 
using.  As  burnt  plaster  looses  its  qualities  by  exposure 
to  the  air,  it  should  be  used  fresh ;  and  in  places  which 
do  not  furnish  this  material,  this  stone  should  be  procured 
and  calcined  as  wanted. 

Stucco  is  a  very  neat  kind  of  work,  and  is  principally 
used  for  the  interior  of  buildings  in  this  country  ;  in  France 
and  Italy  it  is  used  also  for  covering  the  exterior,  but 
this  kind  of  work  will  not  bear  the  cold  of  our  climate 
for  exterior  decorations. 

Various  cornices  and  ornaments  are  formed  of  this  sub- 
stance for  interior  decorations,  by  means  of  moulds  made 
of  wood  ;  Basso-relievos  and  friezes  are  made  of  the  same 
material  by  casting  them  in  wax  moulds ;  these  moulds 
are  made  from  clay  moulds,  by  forming  the  latter  by  hand 
and  then  running  melted  wax  into  them.  The  capitals 
of  columns  are  formed  in  the  same  manner,  only  requir- 
ing numerous  moulds  to  complete  them. 

Fresco-painting  or  staining,  is  sometimes  applied  to  out- 
side walls  to  give  them  the  appearance  of  stone,  and  is 
performed  in  the  following  manner.  The  walls  are 
first  covered  with  Roman  cement,  after  which  they  are 
washed  over  with  a  mixture  of  diluted  sulphuric  acid 
and^water,  to  which  a  fluid-ochre  of  the  required  tint 
is  added  :  by  this  means  the  color  is  fixed  and  permanent, 


ART    OF    BUILDING.  255 


because  the  acid  unites  with  the  iron  which  is  in  the 
cement,  and  fixes  the  color. 

There  is  a  distinct  branch  of  plastering  invented,  and 
much  used  in  Italy,  and  from  thence  introduced  into 
France  and  England,  where  it  is  much  used  for  interior 
decorations,  it  is  called  scagliola  from  the  Italian  word 
scaglia  (a  chip  of  marble) ;  it  is  sometimes  called  mar- 
blitur,  from  its  imitating  marble.  This  kind  of  work  is 
principally  used  for  columns  and  pilasters  (half  columns)  ; 
for  this  purpose  a  frame  of  wood  is  made  and  lathed 
about  2^-  or  3  inches  less  in  diameter  than  it  is  intended 
to  be  when  furnished  ;  the  lathes  are  covered  with  com- 
mon plastering  mortar.  When  this  is  pricked  up  or 
roughened  by  crossing  it  with  a  lathe,  so  as  to  make  the 
next  coat  stick,  and  is  sufficiently  dry,  the  worker  in 
scagliola  commences. 

In  preparing  the  materials  for  this  kind  of  work,  the 
purest  plaster  of  paris  is  necessary,  and  should  be 
reduced  to  a  fine  powder  :  it  is  mixed  with  a  solution 
of  glue,  isinglass,  &c.  In  this  solution  the  required 
colors  are  mixed,  and  when  the  work  is  to  be  of  several 
colors,  they  are  mixed  separately,  and  afterwards  min- 
gled and  combined  as  required.  It  is  floated  like  other 
plastering  by  means  of  proper  moulds:  after  which  it  is 
polished  with  pumice  stone,  it  is  then  rubbed  with  tri- 
poli,  (a  good  kind  of  rotten  stone)  charcoal,  and  a  piece 
of  linen,  afterwards  with  a  piece  of  felt  dipped  in  a 
mixture  of  oil  and  tripoli,  and  finally  with  pure  oil. 

In  this  way  the  most  precious  marbles  and  other  costly 
stones  are  imitated  with  astonishing  and  delusive  effect ; 
as  the  imitation  takes  as  high  a  polish,  and  feels  as  cold 
and  hard  as  the  most  compact  marbles,  nothing  beyond 
actual  fracture  can  possibly  discover  the  deception.  If 
the  capitals  of  columns  are  made  of  real  marble,  the  de- 
ception is  beyond  discovery.  If  not  exposed  to  frosts 
and  moisture,  its  durability  is  little  inferior  to  that  of  mar- 
ble, it  retains  its  polish  as  well,  and  is  not  one  tenth  of 
the  expense  of  the  coarsest  kind  of  marble. 

In  plastering  the  walls  of  buildings  constructed  of 
stone  or  brick,  the  cement  or  plaster  should  never  be  laid 
upon  the  stone  or  brick,  if  it  is,  the  building  will  always 
be  damp  ;  therefore,  the  plastering  should  be  placed  on 


256  ART    OF    BUILDING. 

lathes  nailed  to  pieces  of  wood  ctMedfurrings,  leaving  a 
space  between  the  wall  and  plastering.  This  is  the  com- 
mon practice  in  this  country  and  is  founded  upon  the  fol- 
lowing principles  of  heat.  Brick  and  stone  being  bad 
conductors  of  heat,  stone  or  brick  houses  are  warm  in 
the  winter  and  cool  in  the  summer,  and  if  warm  air 
(which  is  always  charged  with  moisture)  comes  in 
contact  with  a  colder  body,  as  stone  or  brick,  the  moist- 
ure is  condensed  upon  the  cold  body  in  the  form  of  wa- 
ter :  now  apply  the  principles  to  a  room  in  a  stone  or 
brick  house,  the  moisture  of  the  room  is  condensed  by 
the  cold  walls.  If  a  confined  space  of  air  is  left  between 
the  wall  and  plastering,  air  being  a  bad  conductor  of  heat, 
the  cold  of  the  brick  or  stone  does  not  reach  the  plaster- 
ing, therefore  such  houses  are  never  damp — because 
the  moisture  can  never  come  through  the  walls,  if  pro- 
perly constructed. 

White-washing  and  coloring  is  another  part  of  a  ma- 
son's work,  and  consists  in  laying  a  thin  coat  of  lime  upon 
any  surface,  either  its  natural  color,  white,  or  any  other. 
Lime  washes  for  stone,  brick,  or  plastering  should  be 
made  by  slacking  lime  with  pure  fresh  water,  as  salt  wa- 
ter would  cause  it  to  exfoliate  or  peal  off,  and  a  small 
quantity  of  lampblack  should  be  added,  (previously  kill- 
ed in  vinegar)  as  this  deprives  the  lime  of  its  yellow  tint. 
Where  wood  work  is  to  be  washed,  the  lime  should  be 
slacked  with  ?alt  water,  as  this  gives  it  a  better  set  than 
fresh  water  would,  and  will  prevent  its  pealing  off. 

Thus,  we  have  gone  through  with  a  practical  explana- 
tion of  the  principal  materials  used  !>v  the  mason,  and  a 
short  illustration  of  some  of  their  uses  ,  our  object  has 
been  solely  to  explain  the  rationale  of  their  operations,  to 
give  a  few  of  the  whys  and  whcnfures  :  if  these  are  pro- 
perly understood  by  the  masons  of  our  country,  we  willingjf 
leave  the  manual  part  of  their  art  to  the  well  known  in- 
genuity of  our  countrymen,  with  a  sure  pledge  that  our 
country  will  not  be  wanting  in  monuments  of  their  skill 
and  intelligence. 

BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED  BY  CARTER,   II  E  X  D  E  E  &.  BAB  COCK. 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER  XI  . 


EVAPORATION. 


THIS  is  a  process  which  is  continually  going  on  around 
us.  The  earth  is  alternately  dried  and  replenished  with 
moisture,  —  the  streams  shrink  and  grow  again,  —  vegeta- 
tion at  one  time  mourns  the  absence  of  her  genial  nour- 
isher,  and  at  another  glows  with  renovated  life  and  vigor  ; 
—  all  these  changes  are  the  effect?  of  evaporation.  Often 
on  one  day  the  weather  is  fair  and  clear,  and  the  sun 
goes  on  '  rejoicing  as  a  strong  rmm  to  run  a  race.'  The 
next  day,  the  face  of  the  heaven  is  veiled  in  clouds,  and 
the  drenching  rain  or  chilling  snow  is  rapidly  descending. 
In  the  morning,  nature  is  smiling  beneath  the  light  of 
day,  and  before  the  shades  of  evening  have  fallen  upon 
the  landscape,  the  tempest  has  risen  in  its  wrath,  and  the 
thunder  is  echoing  through  the  sky.  What  is  the  agent 
that  has  produced  this  transformation  1  What  is  it,  that 
at  one  time  forms  the  materials  'ibr  the  tempest,  and  at 
another,  creates  the  golden  clouds  that  gather  around  the 
path  of  the  descending  sun  1  It  is  evaporation.  It  is 
this  that  dries  the  face  of  the  ground  in  spring,  gives  the 
beautiful  greenness  to  the  fields  of  summer,  and  prepares 
the  materials  for  the  snows  and  storms  of  winter. 
Scarcely  less  important  are  the  effects  of  evaporation  on 
domestic  economy.  To  the  painter,  the  clothier,  the 
calico-printer,  it  is  indispensable  ;  to  those  engaged  in 
the  daily  routine  of  domestic  avocations,  no  less  so. 
They  all  rely  upon  it  with  implicit  confidence,  nor  do 
they  rely  in  vain.  For  thousands  of  years  it  has  been 
employed,  and  still  it  performs  its  destined  task,  as  faith- 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xi.  23 


258  EVAPORATION. 


fully  as  when  its  operations  first  began.  Let  us  then 
examine  this  operation  of  nature,  so  important  in  its 
effects,  so  interesting  in  regard  to  the  phenomena  by 
which  it  is  attended. 

We  will  first  inquire  into  the  cause  of  evaporation. 
Heat  appears  to  be  the  great  agent,  by  which  the  process 
is  carried  on.  Perhaps  the  air  itself  may  have  some 
tendency  to  raise  water  ;  but  various  experiments  prove 
the  great  influence  of  heat  in  the  formation  of  vapor. 
An  illustration  of  this  may  be  seen  in  the  rapidity  with 
which  the  ground  dries  after  a  rain  in  summer,  compared 
with  the  slowness  of  the  same  process  in  autumn  or  win- 
ter. When  the  temperature  of  water  is  raised  above  212 
degrees,  it  assumes  the  form  of  vapor  so  rapidly 
as  to  cause  that  bubbling  which  we  term  boiling.  This 
process  differs  in  some  respects  from  the  formation  of 
vapor  at  the  common  temperature  of  the  atmosphere. 
The  distinction  between  them  is  sometimes  expressed  by 
the  terms  vaporization  and  evaporation.  There  is  how- 
ever so  much  connexion  between  them,  that  we  may  with 
propriety  examine  them  together.  Water  may  be  made 
to  pass  off  entirely  in  vapor,  though  kept  at  a  temperature 
far  below  212  degrees.  Moisture  collects  on  the  cover 
of  a  kettle,  when  placed  over  the  fire,  long  before  the 
liquid  has  reached  the  boiling  point.  But  it  is  not  till  it 
has  reached  that  point,  that  the  expansive  power  of  heat 
is  sufficient  to  enable  the  water  to  assume  the  form  of 
vapor,  while  pressed  by  the  superincumbent  liquid.  At 
that  point  it  becomes  sufficient,  and  the  water  near  the 
bottom  expanding  into  vapor,  and  rising  rapidly  to  the 
surface,  causes  the  appearance,  which  is  termed  boiling. 
On  high  mountains  water  boils  at  a  much  lower  tempera- 
ture than  in  valleys.  The  pressure  of  the  air  on  the 
surface  of  the  water  is  less,  and  consequently  the  resist- 
ance to  the  formation  of  vapor  is  diminished.  On  the 
top  of  Mont  Blanc,  the  highest  of  the  Alps,  water  boils 
at  187  degrees.  In  the  exhausted  receiver  of  an  air 
pump,  it  boils  at  a  still  lower  temperature.  Ether  is  so 
volatile  that  it  boils  at  almost  any  temperature,  when  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere  is  removed.  If  a  watch- 
crystal  containing  a  little  ether,  be  placed  in  another 


EVAPORATJOX. 


containing  a  fe\v  drops  of  water,  and  the  pressure  of  the 
air  upon  the  surface  of  the  ether  be  removed  by  the  air- 
pump,  the  ether  will  boil  and  the  water  will  freeze.  The 
heat  which  the  ether  absorbs  in  boiling  causes  the  water 
to  freeze.  From  the  same  cause,  wetting  the  hands  with 
ether  will  make  them  severely  cold.  The  ether  evapo- 
rating takes  away  heat  from  the  hands. 

The  fact  that  liquids  are  driven  oft*  or  made  to  boil  at 
lower  degrees  of  heat  when  the  pressure  of  the  atmo- 
sphere is  lessened  or  removed,  has  recently  been  applied 
to  some  very  useful  purposes. 

The  process  for  refining  sugar  is  to  dissolve  impure 
sugar  in  water,  and  after  clarifying  the  solution  to  evapo- 
rate the  water  that  the  dry,  crystallized  mass  may  remain. 
Formerly  this  operation  was  conducted  under  atmo- 
spheric pressure,  and  a  heat  of  218  or  220  was  requisite 
to  make  the  syrup  boil  :  —  by  this  heat  a  portion  of  the 
sugar  was  often  discolored  and  spoiled,  and  often  the 
whole  was  more«.or  less  injured.  The  thought  occurred 
to  Mr  Howard  that  this  evil  would  be  remedied,  if  the 
water  were  dissipated  by  boiling  in  a  place  from  which  air 
was  excluded,  as  the  temperature  then  required  would  be 
so  low  as  not  to  injure  the  sugar.  The  plan  proposed  by 
him  was  tried  and  succeeded ;  and  the  saving  of  sugar 
and  the  improvement  of  quality  were  so  great  as  to  make 
the  patent  right,  by  which  the  emoluments  of  the  process 
were  secured  to  him  and  others,  worth  several  thousand 
pounds  a  year.  The  syrup,  during  this  process,  is  not 
more  heated  than  it  would  be  in  a  vessel  merely  exposed 
to  a  summer  sun.  This  is  an  interesting  instance  of 
the  application  of  philosophical  principles  to  purposes  of 
practical  utility. 

The  process  of  distillation  affords  another  instance. 
This  process  consists  simply  in  bringing  the  more  volatile 
parts  of  any  substance  by  means  of  heat  into  an  aeriform 
state,  and  then  condensing  them  again  in  appropriate  ves- 
sels. Many  substances  which  are  changed  and  injured 
by  high  degrees  of  heat,  may  be  obtained  of  very  superior 
quality  by  carrying  on  the  operation  in  a  vacuum.  The 
essential  oils  of  lavender,  peppermint,  &c,  never  had  the 
natural  flavor  and  virtues  of  the  plants  themselves,  until 


260  EVAPORATION. 


since  a  plan  based  on  this  principle  was  adopted.  In 
many  instances  the  influence  on  the  human  system  of 
vegetable  medicines  thus  obtained  is  so  different  from 
that  of  the  old  preparations,,  that  this  principle  becomes 
one  of  the  utmost  importance  to  the  medical  practitioner. 
The  expansive  force  of  steam  is  prodigious.  At  212 
degrees,  the  point  at  which  water  boils  under  common  at- 
mospheric pressure,  the  force  of  steam  is,  as  might  be 
supposed,  15  pounds  to  the  square  inch,  or  equal  to  the 
pressure  of  the  atmosphere.  Above  this  temperature  it 
increases  according  to  the  following  table  : 

At  250  it  is  30  pounds  per  inch. 
"    272  "  "  45       "         "       " 
"    290  "  "  GO       "         "       " 

Seeing  the  rapid  increase  of  the  expansive  force  in  the 
above  table,  we  have  the  explanation  of  the  terrible 
effects  occasionally  produced  by  confined  water,  when 
overheated.  A  boiler  of  any  kind,  if  completely  closed 
and  having  no  safety  valve,  will  explode  as  if  charged 
with  gunpowder.  And  against  such  a  disaster,  no  strength 
of  materials  is  a  sufficient  protection  without  care  and 
skill  on  the  part  of  those  who  have  the  management  of 
this  mighty  agent ;  but  with  these  it  may  be  made,  notwith- 
standing its  tremendous  power,  to  perform  its  part  almost 
if  not  quite  as  safe,  as  the  beast  of  burden  that  we  consider 
completely  under  our  control.  Unhappily  the  instances 
are  too  numerous,  in  which  the  incautious  or  ignorant  use 
of  steam  has  produced  explosions,  which  have  shattered 
buildings,  and  sometimes  destroyed  whole  neighborhoods. 
The  principle  on  which  the  steam  engine  acts  is  not  dif- 
ficult to  be  understood,  although  it  is  often  supposed  to 
be  intelligible  to  those  only  who  will  devote  much  time  to 
the  study  of  it.  He  who  can  understand  a  pump,  can 
understand  a  steam  engine.  It  is  in  fact  only  a  pump  in 
which  the  fluid  is  made  to  impel  the  piston  instead  of 
being  impelled  by  it,  —  that  is  to  say,  in  which  the  fluid 
acts  as  the  power,  instead  of  being  the  resistance.  It 
may  be  described  simply  as  a  strong  barrel  or  cylinder 
with  a  closely  fitting  piston  in  it,  which  is  driven  up  and 
down  by  steam  admitted  alternately  above  and  below  from 


EVAPORATION.  261 


a  suitable  boiler.  The  power  of  the  engine  is  of  course 
proportioned  to  the  size  or  area  of  the  piston,  on  which 
the  steam  acts  with  a  force  according  to  its  density,  of 
from  15  to  100  or  more  pounds  to  each  square  inch.  In 
some  of  the  mines  in  Cornwall,  England,  there  are  cylin- 
ders and  pistons  of  more  than  70  inches  in  diameter,  on 
which  the  pressure  of  the  steam  equals  the  effort  of  600 
horses.  So  extensively  is  this  engine  used  in  England, 
that  it  is  an  important  source  of  her  national  power. 
There  one  engine  is  often  seen  stretching  its  long  arms 
over  an  extensive  manufactory,  and  guidir^  all  its  com- 
plicated movements  seemingly  with  the  precision  and 
more  than  the  precision  of  intellect.  In  one  part  of  the 
building  it  is  keeping  thousands  of  spinning-wheels  in 
motion,  while  in  another  it  is  carding  the  material,  and 
in  a  third  weaving  the  cloth.  In  like  manner,  one  steam- 
engine  in  a  great  brewery  may  be  seen  at  the  same  time 
grinding  the  malt,  pulling  up  supplies  of  all  kinds  from 
wagons  in  various  situations,  pumping  cold  water  into 
some  of  the  coppers,  sending  the  boiling  wort  from 
others  into  lofty  cooling-pans,  over  which  it  is  turning 
the  fans,  and  in  a  word,  performing  the  offices  of  a  hun- 
dred hands.  It  is  not  strange  that  the  eulogist  of  Watt, 
the  great  improver  of  the  steam  engine  in  England, 
should  say,  '  it  is  the  steam  engine  which  has  fought  our 
battles  and  enabled  us  to  come  off  victorious  in  the  late 
tremendous  contest.'  Had  it  not  been  for  this  mighty 
engine,  perhaps  England  herself  would  have  been  com- 
pelled to  bend  under  the  power  of  Napoleon,  aided  as  he 
was  at  one  time  by  the  power  of  almost  all  Europe. 

Water,  if  not  confined,  slowly  evaporates  and  incor- 
porates with  the  atmosphere  at  any  temperature  above 
the  freezing  point.  And  it  is  highly  probable  that  even 
freezing  does  not  wholly  put  a  stop  to  this  process.  Ice 
appears  gradually  to  waste  away  even  when  the  surround- 
ing air  is  at  a  temperature  far  below  the  freezing  point. 
When  water  is  rarefied  to  a  certain  degree,  it  becomes 
lighter  than  the  surrounding  air,  and  consequently  rises> 
although  its  presence  in  the  air  is  not  generally  perceiv- 
ed. The  air  can  contain  a  certain  quantity  of  moisture 
so  dissolved  as  to  be  perfectly  invisible.  In  this  state  it 

VOL.  I.— NO.   XI.  23* 


262  EVAPORATION. 


occasions  no  dampness.  The  quantity  which  it  is  capa- 
ble of  so  containing,  varies  with  the  warmth  and  density 
of  the  air.  It  decreases  '  from  below  upwards,  and  from 
from  the  equator  to  the  poles.  The  air  has  been  com- 
pared to  a  sponge,  expanding  and  becoming  capable  of 
containing  more  water,  by  heat,  and  contracting  by  cold.' 
Air  at  the  freezing  point  can  hold  in  solution  T-^  of  its 
own  weight  in  water :  at  59°,  ^  at  86°,  ¥V>  anfl  so  on, 
its  power  doubling  at  every  increase  of  temperature  equal 
to  27  degrees.  —  In  a  hot  summer  day,  the  air  holds  a 
great  quantity  of  water  in  solution ;  yet  we  are  wholly 
unconscious  of  its  presence  unless  it  is  by  some  means 
deprived  of  its  heat,  and  thus  rendered  visible.  If,  in  a 
warm  day,  a  tumbler  be  filled  with  cold  water,  the  outside 
of  it  will  almost  immediately  be  covered  with  dew.  The 
tumbler  being  colder  than  the  surrounding  air,  takes  away 
a  part  of  its  heat,  and  the  moisture  which  that  heat  kept 
in  solution  is  rendered  visible  on  the  outside  of  the  tum- 
bler. When  the  dew  thus  deposited  is  very  abundant,  it  is 
justly  regarded  as  a  sign  of  rain.  Other  things  being 
equal,  the  quantity  deposited  will  be  in  proportion  to  the 
amount  of  water  then  held  in  solution  by  the  air.  If  this 
amount  is  great,  a  small  change  in  the  state  of  the  air 
may  produce  rain.  If  it  is  small,  a  greater  change  will 
be  necessary,  and  consequently  the  probability  of  rain  is 
less.  But  vapor  sometimes  rises  in  so  great  quantities 
that  the  air  cannot  dissolve  it  all.  Sometimes  by  a 
change  of  temperature,  or  some  other  means,  the  air  loses 
a  part  of  its  power  to  contain  water  in  an  invisible  state. 
A  part  of  the  water  will  then  become  visible  in  the  form 
of  a  cloud. 


Clouds,  then,  are  collections  of  vapor  in  the  air,  render- 
ed visible  by  condensation.  They  seldom  rise  very  high. 
Sometimes  they  rest  upon  the  earth's  surface,  constituting 
what  is  termed  fog.  Sometimes  they  are  a  mile  above 
the  surface  of  the  earth,  sometimes  more ;  but  they  sel- 
dom rise  higher  than  two  or  three  miles.  Very  thin 
fleecy  clouds,  however,  sometimes  rise  to  the  height  of 
4  or  5  miles.  But  why  do  they  not  rise  to  the  surface  of 


EVAPORATION.  263 


the  atmosphere  ?  —  The  density  of  the  atmosphere  rapidly 
decreases  upwards.  One  half  of  the  whole  quantity  of  air 
is  within  about  three  miles  from  the  earth.  Above  this 
height,  the  air  is  unable  to  support  any  considerable  quan- 
tities of  vapor.  Hence  we  see  the  reason  why  clouds 
rise  no  higher,  and  why  the  thinnest  and  lightest  rise 
highest. 

Form  and  Color  of  Clouds. 

To  an  attentive  observer  the  clouds  present  many  in- 
teresting subjects  of  contemplation.  Their  ever  varying 
forms,  their  bea*utiful  and  richly  variegated  colors,  and 
their  silent  motion  varying  often  in  velocity  and  direction, 
while  they  furnish  the  poet  with  a  field  in  which  his  fancy 
may  rove  delighted,  also  afford  to  the  student  of  nature, 
many  an  interesting  theme  for  reflection.  At  one  time, 
dark  and  portentous,  fancy  might  easily  imagine  them 
the  ruins  of  some  ancient  castle,  or  time-worn  tower. 
At  another,  they  gather  in  beautiful  and  glorious  forms 
around  the  path  of  the  descending  sun,  and  seem  to  vie 
with  that  luminary  itself  in  splendor.  Sometimes  they 
move  swiftly  over  the  face  of  heaven,  and  soon  recede 
from  our  view  ;  sometimes  they  seem  to  meet  each  other, 
and  soon,  like  hasty  travellers,  pass  each  other  by, 
without  a  sign  of  recognition.  At  one  time  while  we 
gaze  upon  them,  they  vanish  ;  at  another  they  gather  into 
darker  and  heavier  masses  of  collected  gloom.  Now 
they  collect,  now  they  disperse,  —  and  now  they  change 
form  and  color  with  surprising  rapidity.  To  the  inquir- 
ing mind  the  question  naturally  occurs,  what  is  the  cause 
of-  all  these  varied  appearances  ?  The  inquiry  leads  to 
careful  observation,  and  though  in  many  instances,  that 
cause  clouds  our  search,  yet,  in  many  others,  we  are  ena- 
bled to  arrive  at  general  principles  and  uniform  relations, 
which  enable  us  to  anticipate  the  storm,  and  predict  the 
time  of  its  termination.  The  principal  circumstances 
which  influence  the  form  of  clouds  are  the  motion  of  the 
air  and  the  formation  and  condensation  of  vapor.  Sub- 
stances so  light  as  clouds,  readily  change  form,  when  sub- 
jected to  greater  atmospheric  pressure  on  one  side,  than 
on  the  another.  Different  portions  of  the  air  move  with 


264  EVAPORATION. 


different  degrees  of  velocity.  Hence  clouds  situated  in 
these  portions  of  air,  divide,  collect,  and  change  form, 
according  to  the  foice  acting  upon  them.  Water-spouts 
are  usually  attended  by  a  thick  black  cloud,  formed  pro- 
bably by  the  vapor  condensed  by  opposite  currents  of  air 
meeting.  New  accessions  of  vapor  often  change  the 
form  of  clouds  ;  also  the  dissolving  of  vapor  or  a  dimi- 
nution of  its  density.  Sometimes  probably  a  cloud  meets 
with  a  stratum  of  air  sufficiently  warm  to  dissolve  it.  In 
this  case  it  will  vanish  by  degrees.  Different  parts  of  a 
cloud  may  be  in  strata  of  air  of  different  warmth  or  den- 
sity. The  cloud  will  then  partly  dissolve,  and  the  part 
dissolved  will  perhaps  rise  and  become  visible  in  a  higher 
portion  of  the  air,  where  the  heat  is  not  sufficient  to  ren- 
der it  invisible.  In  the  spring  it  is  often  cloudy  in  the 
morning,  and  clears  off  towards  noon.  The  heat  of  the 
sun  dissolves  the  moisture  which  arose  in  great  quantities 
from  the  damp  earth  in  the  morning. 

Clouds  near  the  horizon  generally  appear  to  extend 
much  farther  horizontally  than  perpendicularly.  This  is 
probably,  in  part,  an  illusion.  If  the  lower  surface  of  a 
cloud  is  nearly  parallel  to  the  surface  of  the  earth,  its 
extent  towards  the  zenith  will  appear  much  less  than  it 
really  is,  while  this  will  not  be  the  case  with  its  extent  in 
the  direction  of  the  horizon.  As  it  approaches  the  zenith, 
it  will  appear  more  nearly  of  its  true  dimensions.  Hence 
clouds  in  the  zenith  seldom,  or  never  appear  to  be  of  this 
form.  Clouds  often  move  in  opposite  directions.  Dif- 
ferent portions  of  air  often  move  in  different  directions 
above  one  another,  on  account  of  their  being  unequally 
rarefied  by  heat.  They  of  course  carry  the  clouds  with 
them.  This  may  be  readily  illustrated.  If,  in  cold 
weather,  the  door  of  a  warm  room  be  opened  a  little, 
and  a  candle  held  near  the  bottom  of  the  opening,  and 
another  near  the  top,  the  flame  will  often  be  blown  in  op- 
posite directions.  The  cold  air  rushes  in  at  the  bottom, 
and  the  warm  air  being  lighter  goes  out  at  the  top. 

The  color  of  clouds  depends  on  the  rays  of  light  which 
they  reflect.  Dark  clouds  often  precede  wind.  But 
although  they  are  seen  before  the  wind  is  felt,  they  are 
not  the  cause,  but  the  effect  of  the  wind.  As  the  wind 
moves  on,  it  presses  upon  that  portion  of  the  air,  which 


EVAPORATION.  265 


has  a  velocity  less  than  its  own,  and  by  this  pressure,  and 
perhaps  also  by  its  greater  coldness,  condenses  the  vapor 
contained  in  it,  and  thus  forms  a  cloud.  This  cloud,  be- 
ing so  dense  that  little  or  no  light  can  pass  through  it, 
appears  black.  And  the  degree  of  darkness  on  the  den- 
sity of  the  vapor,  or  in  other  words,  on  the  velocity  of 
the  wind,  and  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  portion  of  air 
compressed.  The  beautiful  colors,  that  often  adorn  the 
sky  at  sunset,  are  caused  by  the  clouds  reflecting  the  sun's 
light.  That  redness  of  the  sky  in  the  morning,  which  is 
often  regarded  as  the  precursor  of  a  storm,  probably  re- 
sults from  the  red  rays  of  the  sun  passing  through  the 
vapor  collected  in  the  air.  Light  is  composed  of  seven 
different  colored  rays,  possessing  different  degrees  of 
force.  These  may  be  seen  separate  from  each  other  in 
the  rainbow.  Of  these  the  red  rays  have  the  greatest 
force  or  momentum.  Hence,  when  the  air  is  very  full 
of  vapor,  the  red  rays  have  sufficient  power  to  penetrate 
it,  while  the  others  have  not.  Many  of  the  red  rays, 
however,  do  not  come  directly  from  the  sun,  but  are  scat- 
tered in  various  directions  on  striking  the  vapor,  and  thus 
the  redness  is  diffused  over  a  considerable  space. 

Thunder-clouds  exhibit  an  appearance  peculiarly  strik- 
ing. To  many  they  are  objects  of  terror ;  in  a  greater 
or  less  degree  they  arrest  the  attention  of  almost  every 
one.  These  clouds  are  collections  of  vapor  strongly 
electrified.  They  are  generally  very  dense,  and  very 
near  the  earth.  Frequently  two  clouds  rise  in  different 
parts  of  the  horizon,  and  move  towards  each  other,  till 
they  meet,  at  the  same  time  rising  up  towards  the  zenith. 
When  clouds  in  different  electrical  states  approach  near 
each  other,  or  when  a  strongly  electrified  cloud  approaches 
near  to  the  earth,  the  electricity  is  discharged  in  vast 
quantities  and  with  tremendous  violence,  thus  constitut- 
ing what  is  termed  lightning,  while  the  concussion  given 
to  the  surrounding  air  by  its  force,  and  the  rushing  to- 
gether of  the  portions  of  air  separated  by  its  motion  causes 
thunder.  This  sound,  reflected  and  reverberated  among 
the  clouds,  produces  the  lonsf-coritinued  and  solemn  roll, 
which  forms  one  of  the  sublimest  characteristics  of  a 
thunder-storm.  It  is  often  imagined  that  lightning  always 


266  EVAPORATION. 


moves  towards  the  earth.  But  there  is  reason  to  suppose, 
that  discharges  are  sometimes  made  from  the  earth  to  the 
clouds,  as  well  as  from  the  clouds  to  the  earth.  —  It  is  not 
difficult  to  measure  the  distance  of  thunder-clouds  from 
the  earth.  Sound  moves  at  the  rate  of  1142  feet  in  a 
second  ;  light  at  the  rate  of  about  200,000  miles  in  a  sec- 
ond. The  time  in  which  light  traverses  so  small  a  space, 
as  that  between  a  thunder-cloud  and  any  place,  from 
which  the  thunder  can  be  heard,  is  so  short  that  it  need 
not  be  estimated.  If  then  we  multiply  the  number  of 
seconds  between  the  flash  and  the  thunder  by  1 142,  we 
have  the  distance  of  the  cloud  in  feet.  Hence,  when  a 
very  short  time  elapses  between  the  flash  and  the  thunder, 
the  discharge  is  very  near.  There  is  a  peculiar  sublimity 
attending  thunder-storms  in  mountainous  regions.  The 
traveller  among  the  Andes  frequently  hears  the  thunder 
roll,  and  sees  the  lightning  flash  from  the  clouds  that 
gather  around  the  hills  far  beneath  him,  while  around  his 
path,  and  on  the  heights  above  him,  the  sun  is  shining 
with  unclouded  splendor. 


As  the  quantity  of  water  in  the  clouds  is  increased  by 
new  accessions  of  vapor,  they  at  length  become  too  heavy 
to  be  supported  in  the  air,  and  begin  to  sink.  Often 
also  the  air  below  them  grows  lighter,  and  consequently 
less  able  to  support  them.  They  will  then  descend  with- 
out any  increase  of  weight.  On  this  principle,  the  falling 
of  smoke  indicates  rain.  It  seems  a  very  fair  conclusion 
that  if  the  air  is  not  sufficiently  heavy  to  carry  smoke  up, 
it  will  soon  let  the  water  which  it  contains,  come  down. 
The  barometer  usually  sinks  before  rain,  showing  that 
one  great  cause  of  storms  is  a  diminution  of  the  weight 
of  the  atmosphere.  As  the  vapor  descends,  it  will  meet 
with  other  portions  of  vapor,  and  by  degrees  turn  into 
drops  of  rain.  To  exhibit  the  process  in  a  clearer  light, 
let  us  suppose  a  few  particles  of  vapor  suspended  high  in 
the  air,  and  strata  of  vapor  arranged  horizontally  below. 
As  each  particle  of  the  higher  vapor  passes  through  the 
strata  below,  a  portion  of  the  water  in  those  strata,  will 
unite  with  it :  thus  a  drop  will  be  formed.  As  the  air 


.- 

EVAPORATION.  267 


contains  more  or  less  water,  and  as  the  clouds  are  higher 
or  lower,  the  drops  will  vary  in  size.  Perhaps  we  may 
hence  discover  a  reason  why  large  drops  are  considered 
a  sign,  that  the  rain  will  not  last  long.  Large  drops,  it 
is  supposed,  come  most  generally  from  elevated  clouds, 
and  the  reason  why  they  are  large  is,  the  number  of  par- 
ticles accumulated  during  their  passage  through  so  large 
a  portion  of  the  atmosphere.  But  at  a  height  sufficient 
to  form  these  large  drops,  the  air  is  not  heavy  enough  to 
support  large  quantities  of  vapor.  Hence  the  rain  con- 
tinues but  a  short  time.  But  when  the  clouds  are  low, 
the  particles  of  vapor,  passing  through  but  a  small  space, 
do  not  coalesce  in  sufficient  numbers  to  form  a  large  drop. 
The  air  near  the  earth  being  dense,  can  support  more 
vapor.  Hence  the  storms  from  these  clouds  are  long. 
But  thunder-clouds  are  low  ;  yet  the  rain  from  them  often 
comes  in  large  drops,  and  does  not  generally  continue 
long.  These  clouds  are  formed  of  very  dense  collections 
of  vapor,  so  that  in  falling  a  short  distance,  a  number  of 
particles  sufficient  to  form  a  large  drop  come  in  contact. 
In  addition  to  this,  the  concussion  given  to  the  clouds  by 
the  motion  of  electricity,  probably  serves  to  condense 
the  vapor  still  more.  There  is  another  marked  difference 
between  thunder-clouds,  and  those  which  produce  long 
storms.  The  former  extend  over  but  a  small  space  :  the 
latter  sometimes  cover  a  large  part  of  a  continent.  This 
will  account  for  the  difference  in  their  duration.  In  ad- 
dition to  this,  during  a  storm  clouds  probably  often  re- 
ceive fresh  accessions  of  vapor  from  places  beyond  the 
limits  of  the  storm.  Daily  experience  shows  that  the 
duration  of  storms  depends  very  much  on  the  direction 
of  the  wind.  Winds  which  blow  from  the  ocean,  come 
loaded  with  vapor,  which  contributes  to  swell  the  amount 
already  collected,  and  consequently  to  prolong  the  storm. 
IIe,nce  clear  weather  succeeding  a  storm,  while  the  wind 
still  continues  in  the  northeast,  east,  or  southeast,  is  sel- 
dom of  long  continuance.  The  wind  soon  load?  the  air 
again  with  vapor,  and  another  storm  is  the  consequence. 
On  the  contrary,  north-northwest  and  west  winds  usually 
bring  fair  weather.  They  not  only  drive  the  clouds  to- 
wards the  ocean,  but  coming  from  a  colder  region  into  a 


268  EVAPORATION. 


warmer  one,  they  become  capable  of  holding  an  addi- 
tional quantity  of  water  in  solution,  and  therefore  take 
this  additional  quantity  from  the  clouds,  that  come  in 
their  way. 

HAIL,    SNOW,    ETC. 

Hail  is  caused  by  drops  of  rain  passing  through  air 
sufficiently  cold  to  freeze  them.  It  is  said  to  occur  prin- 
cipally in  the  temperate  zones.  In  the  torrid  zone  it  is 
seldom  or  never  cold  enough  to  form  hail  so  near  the 
earth  as  the  clouds  usually  are,  and  should  hail  be  form- 
ed in  the  higher  regions  of  the  atmosphere,  the  great 
heat  which  it  would  encounter  in  descending  would 
probably  melt  it.  In  the  frigid  zones,  on  the  contrary, 
the  intense  cold  would  freeze  the  vapor,  before  it  had 
formed  into  drops ;  and  during  the  few  days  of  summer 
in  those  zones,  the  rapidly  increasing  heat  renders  the 
air  capable  of  holding  so  much  water  in  solution  that 
the  weather  is  generally  pleasant.  But  in  the  temperate 
zones,  which  are  exposed  to  currents  of  warm  air  from 
the  south,  and  of  cold  air  from  the  north,  drops  of  water 
are  often  frozen  after  attaining  a  considerable  size.  The 
coldness  of  air  generally  increases  in  proportion  to  its 
elevation,  but  sometimes  a  higher  stratum  is  warmer  than 
a  lower  one.  Hail-stones  frequently  result  from  such  an 
inversion,  and,  as  might  be  expected  under  such  circum- 
stances, are  generally  attended  by  wind.  The  wind,  par- 
ticularly in  the  torrid  zone,  blows  from  the  poles  towards 
the  equator.  The  warm  air  at  the  equator  rises,  and  flows 
back  to  restore  the  equilibrium.  As  it  flows  back,  it 
grows  colder.  If  it  is  so  full  of  water,  that  on  cooling  it 
will  deposit  a  part,  the  water  thus  deposited  will  pass 
through  the  current  of  air  below,  moving  from  the  poles, 
and  if  this  is  sufficiently  cold  to  freeze  it,  hail  will  be 
formed.  It  is  believed  that  hail  is  generated  in  the  higher 
regions  of  the  atmosphere.  Warm  air  is  lighter  than 
cold  air,  and  will  therefore  tend  to  rise  higher.  Air,  that 
passes  swiftly  from  a  warm  region  to  a  cold  one,  will  have  less 
time  to  cool  in  passing,  than  if  it  passes  more  slowly,  and 
therefore  will  rise  high,  and  pass  on,  till  it  comes  in  con- 
tact with  very  cold  air,  before  it  will  deposit  the  water 


EVAPORATION.  269 


which  it  contains.  This  water,  in  passing  through  a  very 
cold  stratum  of  air,  will  freeze.  Again,  a  very  cold  current 
of  air  may  suddenly  meet  with  a  body  of  air  much  warmer 
than  itself,  and  freeze  it.  The  hail-stones  at  first  will 
be  small.  As  they  descend,  they  will  freeze  the  parti- 
cles of  vapor,  with  which  they  come  in  contact,  and  thus 
grow  larger.  Observations  made  in  elevated  situations 
show  that  they  do  thus  grow  larger.  —  In  the  winter  the 
vapor,  as  it  condenses,  is  probably  frozen  before  it  forms 
into  large  drops,  and  thus  becomes  snow.  Hence,  when 
particles  come  together,  they  do  not  unite  into  one  dense 
mass,  as  in  rain  and  hail,  but  each  particle  exhibits  its 
own  formation  and  structure,  and  even  when  hail  is  form- 
ed in  winter,  the  hail-stones  are  very  seldom  large.  Hail- 
stones are  generally  hardest  in  the  centre,  and  of  a  looser 
texture  towards  the  outside.  In  passing  through  succes- 
sive portions  of  vapor,  the  intense  cold  of  the  hail-stones 
is  gradually  diminished,  and  consequently  those  particles, 
which  unite  with  them  last,  are  not  frozen  so  hard,  as 
those  which  coalesced  at  an  earlier  period.  It  is  fre- 
quently the  case,  that  it  snows  on  mountains  and  rains 
in  valleys  at  the  same  time.  Here  we  have  evidence  that 
the  condensed  vapor,  during  a  part  of  the  period  of  its 
descent,  had  the  form  of  snow,  and  retained  it,  till  it  had 
descended  as  low  as  the  tops  of  the  hills,  but  melted  in 
descending  into  the  valleys.  Hence  the  tops  of  the  White 
Mountains  and  many  others  are  robed  in  white,  long  be- 
fore snow  begins  to  fall  in  places  near  the  level  of  the 
sea.  Probably  many  of  the  rain-storms,  which  we  expe- 
rience, would  be  snow-storms  to  one  who  should  ascend  a 
mile  or  two  in  the  air. 


As  the  earth  cools  more  rapidly  than  the  air,  when  it 
ceases  to  receive  heat  from  the  sun,  the  moisture,  which  is 
contained  in  the  portion  of  air  in  contact  with  the  earth 
imparts  heat  to  it,  and  becomes  condensed  in  the  form  of 
dew.  When  the  cold  is  great  this  condensed  moisture 
freezes,  forming  what  is  termed  white  frost.  Dew  col- 
lects most  abundantly  on  those  substances  which  give  off 
heat  most  rapidly,  as  the  difference  between  the  warmtk. 

VOL.  i. —  NO.  xi.  24 


270  EVAPORATION. 


of  these  and  that  of  the  atmosphere  is  the  greatest. 
Hence  we  may  see  the  reason  why  dew  is  more  abun- 
dant in  some  places  than  in  others.  The  soil  being  com- 
posed of  different  materials,  gives  off  heat  with  different 
degrees  of  rapidity.  It  may  perhaps  seem  surprising, 
that  so  much  dew  should  be  deposited  from  so  small  a 
quantity  of  air,  as  that  which  comes  in  contact  with  the 
earth  ;  but  the  quantity  of  water  deposited  on  a  tumbler 
of  cold  water  in  hot  weather,  shows  that  a  small  portion 
of  the  atmosphere  may  hold  in  solution  an  amount  of 
moisture  by  no  means  inconsiderable.  It  might  perhaps 
seem  that  more  dew  would  be  deposited  in  very  windy 
nights,  than  at  other  times,  but  generally  this  is  not  the 
case.  Probably  the  particles  of  air  are  not  in  contact 
with  the  earth  a  sufficient  length  of  time  to  lose  much  of 
their  heat,  and  consequently  continue  to  hold  in  solution 
most  of  the  water  combined  with  them. 

It  is  often  remarked  that  on  cloudy  nights  there  is 
little  or  no  dew.  This  may  perhaps  be  explained  a& 
follows:  —  There  is  a  tendency  in  heat  to  diffuse  itself 
uniformly  among  bodies  by  a  constant  radiation  from 
one  to  another,  which  is  rapid  in  proportion  to  the  differ- 
ences of  temperature.  Bodies  therefore  differing  widely 
in  temperature  are  soon  reduced  to  nearly  the  same 
degree.  When  there  are  clouds  in  the  atmosphere  at 
night  they  receive  the  heat  darted  upwards  from  bodies 
on  the  earth's  surface,  and  throw  it  back  again  to  the 
earth  ;  thus  keeping  the  atmosphere  near  the  earth  warm- 
er than  it  would  otherwise  be.  But  in  clear  weather,  the 
heat  thus  sent  upwards  rinding  no  obstacle  to  intercept 
its  progress,  darts  away  into  boundless  space,  and  is  lost 
altogether  to  the  objects  which  emitted  it.  Probably  the 
sultry  oppressive  heat  which  is  sometimes  felt  on  cloudy 
days  may  be  attributed  to  the  same  cause. 

EFFECTS    ON    TEMPERATURE,    CLIMATE,    ETC. 

The  effect  of  evaporation  on  temperature  is  strikingly 
exhibited  in  the  refreshing  coolness,  which  generally  fol- 
lows a  summer  shower.  As  heat  is  the  principal,  if  not  the 
sole  agent  in  the  process  of  evaporation,  the  rapid  evapora- 


EVAPORATION. 


lion  which  succeeds  a  shower  in  summer, causes  that  grate- 
ful coolness,  which  is  so  generally  felt  after  such  showers 
—  Though  the  heat,  by  which  vapor  is  raised,  is  given  out 
again,  when  that  vapor  is  condensed  into  rain  ;  yet  it  is  not 
generally  feJt  by  us,  as  it  remains  mostly  in  that  region  of 
the  air  where  the  condensation  causing  the  rain  took  place. 

A  room  may  be  made  quite  comfortable  even  in  the 
hottest  weather,  by  keeping  the  floor  wet.  The  water 
will  rapidly  evaporate,  and  by  evaporating  absorb  so  much 
heat,  as  to  render  the  room  comfortably  cool.  In  India, 
by  an  application  of  this  principle,  they  even  produce 
such  a  degree  of  cold  as  to  freeze  water,  though  at  the 
same  time  the  temperature  of  the  air  is  several  degrees 
above  the  freezing  point.  Water  is  exposed  to  the  air 
during  the  night  in  large  shallow  dishes,  and  by  its 
evaporation  carries  off  so  much  heat,  that  what  remains 
in  the  morning  is  found  covered  with  a  thin  coat  of  ice. 

It  is  well  known  that  islands  and  places  near  the  ocean 
are  warmer  in  winter,  and  cooler  in  summer  than  others. 
For  an  explanation  of  this  fact,  we  must  refer  to  the 
principles  of  evaporation.  In  summer,  much  of  the  heat 
is  employed  in  converting  the  water  of  the  ocean  into 
vapor,  and  consequently  the  air  is  cooled.  In  winter, 
the  ocean  retaining  a  portion  of  the  heat  which  it  ab- 
sorbed in  the  summer,  and  having  parted  with  it  less 
rapidly  than  the  land,  gives  it  off  by  degrees,  and  thus 
moderates  the  severity  of  the  cold.  The  desert  of  Sa- 
hara has  long  been  distinguished  for  its  wide  extent  of 
barren  and  inhospitable  sands.  In  the  torrid  zone,  in 
which  this  desert  is  principally  situated,  the  wind  blows 
constantly  from  the  east,  or  some  point  not  far  from  east. 
The  vapors  brought  by  it  from  the  ocean  are  arrested  by 
the  mountains  of  Abyssinia,  and  there  descend  in  tor- 
rents of  rain,  which  go  to  swell  the  waters  of  the  Nile 
-and  fertilize  the  fields  of  Egypt.  As  there  are  few  or  no 
inland  seas  in  Africa,  there  are  no  sources  from  which 
vapor  can  be  obtained  to  furnish  rain  for  the  desert. 
Hence  plants  find  no  nourishment,  and  consequently 
cease  to  grow,  and  the  whole  region  becomes  a  desolate 
and  barren  waste,  except  where  some  spring,  fed  by  sub- 
terranean streams  or  reservoirs.diffuse  its  vivifying  influ- 
ence around  for  a  few  rods,  and  supplies  the  plants  which 


272  EVAPORATION. 


grow  upon  its  borders,  with  the  nourishment  which  they 
require.  From  a  similar  course,  probably  results  the  fact 
that  it  seldom  or  never  rains  in  Peru.  But  this  country  is 
so  near  the  ocean,  that  the  water  which  rises  from  the 
ocean  produces  copious  dews,  which  in  some  measure 
supply  the  want  of  rain,  and  thus  save  the  country  from 
utter  sterility.  Hence  also  a  narrow  strip  of  land,  term* 
ed  Azanaga,  between  the  desert  of  Sahara  and  the  ocean, 
is  comparatively  fertile. 

The  northwestern  part  of  the  United  States  owes  much 
of  its  fertility  to  the-  great  lakes  Superior,  Huron,  &c. 
These  furnish  a  quantity  of  vapor  to  supply  the  deficiency, 
which  would  otherwise  result  from  the  great  distance,  at 
which  the  States  in  this  section  of  the  country  lie  from 
the  ocean.  Were  these  lakes  to  be  dried  up,  the  people 
of  those  states  would  soon  feel  the  effects  in  the  dimin- 
ished quantity  of  rain,  which  they  would  receive,  if  not 
in  seeing  utter  desolation  spreading  over  their  now  beauti- 
ful fields.  In  warm  countries,  even  where  rain  is  common, 
plants  often  suffer  for  want  of  moisture.  In  some  parts 
of  Spain,  the  fields  often  appear  almost  as  if  a  fire  had 
passed  through  them ;  vegetation  becomes  parched  and 
dried,  as  the  heat  of  the  summer  sun  and  often  the  winds 
blowing  from  Africa  carry  off  the  moisture  with  very 
great  rapidity.  In  such  countries,  however,  vegetation, 
when  plentifully  watered,  and  sheltered  from  the  burning 
heat  of  the  sun  sufficiently  to  prevent  too  rapid  evapora- 
tion, exhibits  a  luxuriance,  which  would  seem  surprising 
to  an  inhabitant  of  more  northern  regions.  There,  nour- 
ished by  the  combined  influence  of  heat  and  moisture, 
the  palm,  the  magnolia,  and  other  gigantic  sons  of  the  for- 
est, raise  their  lofty  heads,  arrayed  in  perpetual  verdure  ; 
while  the  forests,  often  rendered  impenetrable  by  vines 
and  bushes  of  various  kinds,  bear  witness  to  the  powerful 
influence  of  that  agent,  which  dresses  the  fields  of  the 
temperate  zones  in  less  luxuriant,  but  perhaps  not  less 
beautiful  verdure.  In  the  frigid  zones,  where,  during  a 
great  part  of  the  year,  water  scarcely  exists  in  a  fluid 
state,  evaporation  is  very  scanty,  and  this,  together  with 
the  intense  cold,  prevents  the  progress  of  vegetation,  ex- 
cept during  the  few  weeks  of  their  brief  summers. 

The  influence  of  cultivation  on  climate  and  tempera- 


EVAPORATION.  273 


ture  is  very  important,  and  this  influence  is  exerted  ia  a 
great  measure  through  the  medium  of  evaporation.  — 
Forests  are  the  abodes  of  dampness.  As  these  are  re- 
moved, the  bogs,  morasses,  &/C,  which  they  contain,  are 
dried  up,  and  no  longer  give  rise  to  cold  and  dampness  by 
absorbing  heat,  and  loading  with  vapor  the  air  which 
passes  over  them.  Trees  prevent  heat  from  penetrating 
the  earth,  and  thus  render  a  country  in  which  forests 
abound  cooler  than  one  in  which  they  do  not.  The 
decayed  vegetation,  which  is  constantly  accumulating 
where  the  ground  is  covered  with  forests,  presents  a  for- 
midable barrier  to  the  heat,  which,  were  it  not  for  this, 
would  penetrate  the  earth  in  summer,  and  be  given  off  to 
mitigate  the  severity  of  winter.  —  The  climate  of  Europe 
is  well  known  to  be  much  milder  than  it  was  2000  years 
ago.  Roman  writers  speak  of  snow-storms  and  ice  as 
common  in  their  days,  in  countries,  the  inhabitants  of 
which  would  now  be  almost  surprised  to  see  them.  Even 
in  New  England  it  is  generally  thought  that  the  climate 
has  grown  sensibly  warmer  since  the  country  was  settled. 
Whether  this  amelioration  is  wholly  to  be  ascribed  to  the 
cause  which  we  have  mentioned,  may  perhaps  be  doubted  ; 
but  that  the  influence  of  evaporation  is  great,  few  will 
question.  So  extensively  indeed  is  its  influence  connected 
with  changes  of  temperature,  and  the  growth  of  plants, 
that  whatever  tends  to  throw  light  on  this  connexion  well 
deserves  the  attention  of  the  agriculturist  and  the  philoso- 
pher. 

DOMESTIC    ECONOMY,    ETC. 

The  avocations  of  the  husbandman,  and  the  employments 
of  domestic  life  depend,  in  many  instances,  on  the  opera- 
tion of  nature,  which  we  are  now  considering.  It  is 
evaporation,  which  removes  the  superfluous  moisture 
from  the  ground  in  spring,  prepares  the  new-mown  hay 
for  the  barn,  and  makes  ready  for  use  the  apparel  that  has 
tried  the  cleansing  power  of  water.  It  is  this  that  seasons 
the  timber  of  the  carpenter,  dries  the  mortar  of  the  mason, 
and  gives  permanence  to  the  effects  produced  by  the  skill 
and  labor  of  the  painter.  The  same  agent  causes  some 
substances  to  crumble  to  powder,  and  others  to  become 

VOL.  i. —  NO.  xt         24* 


274  EVAPORATION. 

moist  or  liquid  on  being  exposed  to  the  air.  Common 
pearlash  is  moistened  by  being  exposed  for  a  short  time 
to  the  action  of  the  atmosphere.  Having  a  strong  attrac- 
tion for  water,  it  absorbs  it  from  the  air,  and  becomes 
rnoist,  and  ultimately,  if  allowed  to  stand  a  sufficient 
length  of  time,  liquefied.  On  the  other  hand,  some  sub- 
stances have  so  little  attraction  for  water,  that  they  readily 
give  off  to  the  air  that  which  they  at  first  contained,  and 
thus  crumble  into  powder.  These  two  properties  are 
often  distinguished  by  the  terms  deliquescence,  and  efflo- 


INTERESTINQ  PHENOMENA  RESULTING  FROM  EVAPORATION. 

Many  interesting  appearances  in  nature  are  connected 
with  evaporation.  A  few  of  these  we  will  notice.  The 
reflection  of  light  from  vapor  is  perhaps  one  of  the  most 
interesting  of  these.  Among  the  Hartz  Mountains,  in 
Germany,  there  are  places  in  which  a  person  may  see  his 
own  image  in  the  air  almost  or  quite  as  distinctly  as  in  a 
mirror.  A  light  breeze  of  wind  will  destroy  it,  but  it  will 
appear  again,  soon  after  the  wind  has  passed.  A  curious  phe- 
nomenon, probably  resulting  from  a  similar  cause,  acting 
under  different  circumstances,  has  been  noticed  in  the 
great  American  Desert.  The  ground  at  a  distance  ap- 
peared to  be  covered  with  water,  in  which  objects  could 
be  distinctly  seen  reflected,  as  they  generally  are  from 
still  water,  but  on  approaching,  no  water  was  to  be  found. 
In  the  deserts  of  Arabia  such  an  illusion  often  mocks  the 
hopes  of  the  thirsty  traveller.  There  is,  however,  some 
difference  of  opinion  in  regard  to  the  cause  of  this  last 
phenomenon.  It  is  often  observed  at  sea,  that  when  the 
air  is  full  of  vapor,  objects  appear  very  large,  or  '  loom 
up,'  as  the  sailors  term  it.  For  an  explanation  of  this 
fact  we  must  refer  to  the  principles  of  Optics.  From 
these  we  learn,  that  when  light  passes  out  of  a  rarer 
into  a  denser  medium,  those  rays  which  do  not  strike 
the  denser  medium  perpendicularly,  are  bent  so  as  to 
make  them  nearer  perpendicular  to  the  denser  medium. 
Now  the  air  ia  thickest,  and  therefore  capable  of  con- 
taining most  morsture  near  the  earth.  The  rays  of  light 
therefore  in  passing  through  the  vapor  are  bent  downwards, 


EVAPORATION.  275 


and  appear  to  come  from  a  point  nearer  overhead  than 
they  really  do.  Consequently  the  object  appears  higher 
than  it  really  is,  and  as  we  judge  of  the  distance  of  ob- 
jects by  their  apparent  size,  nearer.  A  similar  appear- 
ance is  sometimes  witnessed,  though  perhaps  not  to  so 
great  an  extent  on  land,  when  the  air  is  full  of  vapor. 
Hence  it  is  a  common  remark  in  some  places,  '  We  shall 
have  rain  soon,  for  the  hills  look  near.'  The  different 
situation  of  hills,  &c,  makes  this  appearance  more  noticed 
in  some  places  than  in  others.  It  is  well  known  that 
fog  when  it  is  dense,  almost  wholly  obstructs  vision.  It 
has  been  asked  why  this  should  be,  as  fog  is  composed  of 
water,  which  is  transparent.  Those,  however,  who  have 
observed  the  appearance  of  an  object,  when  viewed 
through  a  globular  vessel  of  water,  can  easily  imagine 
the  effect  produced  by  millions  of  exceedingly  small  glo- 
bules, such  as  constitute  fog.  The  principle  of  Optics, 
on  which  this  is  explained,  is  mentioned  above,  but  it  is 
necessary  to  mention  that  if  the  surface  of  the  denser 
medium  be  convex,  the  rays  of  light,  in  beaming  nearer 
perpendicular  to  that  surface,  are  bent  towards  each  other. 
This  may  be  seen  in  a  common  burning  glass.  If  we 
should  attempt  to  look  at  an  object  through  a  pile  of  ten 
thousand  little  balls  of  glass,  we  probably  should  not  be 
much  better  able  to  see  it,  than  we  are  to  see  objects 
through  fog. 

Those  who  live  near  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  often 
witness  a  striking  phenomenon  illustrative  of  our  present 
subject,  when  the  wind  blows  from  the  southeast.  '  Be- 
yond the  city,  as  viewed  from  the  bay.  there  is  a  mountain  of 
great  elevation,  called,  from  its  extended  flat  summit,  the 
Table  Mountain.  In  general  its  rugged  steeps,  are  seen 
rising  in  a  clear  sky ;  but  when  the  southeast  wind 
blows,  the  whole  summit  becomes  enveloped  in  a  cloud  of 
singular  density  and  beauty.  The  inhabitants  call  the 
phenomenon  the  spreading  of  the  table-cloth.  The 
cloud  does  not  appear  to  be  at  rest  on  the  hill,  but  to  be 
constantly  rolling  onward  from  the  southeast ;  yet  to  the 
surprise  of  the  beholder,  it  never  descends,  for  the  snowy 
wreaths,  seen  falling  over  the  precipice  towards  the  town 
below,  vanish  completely  before  they  reach  it,  while  oth- 


276  EVAPORATION. 


ers  are  formed  to  replace  them  on  the  other  side.  The 
reason  of  the  phenomenon  is,  that  the  air  constituting  the 
wind  from  the  southeast,  having  passed  over  the  great 
Southern  Ocean,  comes  charged  with  as  much  invisible 
moisture  as  its  temperature  can  sustain.  In  rising  up 
the  side  of  the  mountain  it  is  rising  in  the  atmosphere, 
and  is  therefore  gradually  escaping  from  a  part  of  its 
former  pressure  ;  and  on  attaining  the  summit,  it  has 
dilated  so  much  and  has  consequently  become  so  much 
colder,  that  it  lets  go  part  of  its  moisture.  This  then 
appears  as  the  cloud  now  described  ;  but  it  no  sooner 
falls  over  the  edge  of  the  mountain,  and  again  descends 
in  the  atmosphere  to  where  it  is  pressed  and  condensed, 
and  heated  as  before,  than  it  is  re-dissolved  and  disap- 
pears ;  the  magnificent  apparition  thus  dwelling  only 
on  the  mountain  top.' 

When  the  elevation,  to  which  moisture  is  suddenly 
carried,  is  very  great,  the  fall  of  temperature  is  propor- 
tional, and  the  separating  water  becomes  snow  instead  of 
rain.  A  sudden  reduction  of  temperature  by  other 
means  will  produce  the  same  effect.  This  is  curiously 
illustrated  by  a  fountain  used  in  one  of  the  mines  of 
Hungary  ;  during  the  play  of  which  the  air  is  so  com- 
pressed, that  on  being  released  it  expands  and  cools 
itself  enough  to  cause  the  moisture  driven  out  with  it  to 
appear,  even  in  summer,  as  a  shower  of  snow. 

At  the  time  of  the  great  eclipse  of  the  sun  in  February 
last,  it  was  observed  in  several  different  places,  that 
although  the  sky  was  clear  at  the  commencement  of  the 
eclipse,  clouds  began  to  appear  before  the  middle,  and 
continued  to  increase  till  the  sun  was  almost  or  wholly 
hid  from  view.  It  was  also  observed  that  soon  after  the 
eclipse  ended  the  clouds  began  to  diminish  in  density,  and 
that  at  length  they  vanished  away.  It  is  not  difficult  to 
account  for  these  appearances  on  the  principles  of  evapo- 
ration. As  the  heat  received  from  the  sun  was  diminished 
in  consequence  of  the  eclipse,  it  became  insufficient  to 
keep  all  the  vapor  contained  in  the  air  in  an  invisible 
state  ;  the  moisture  therefore  condensed  and  formed 
clouds.  When  the  sun  after  the  eclipse  shone  on  these 
clouds,  the  heat  thus  communicated  caused  them  to  dis- 


EVAPORATION.  277 


perse.  If  in  some  places  the  sky  continued  clear  during 
the  eclipse,  the  atmosphere  in  those  places  probably  con- 
tained less  moisture  than  those  before  mentioned,  and 
was  therefore  able  even  at  a  diminished  temperature  to 
support  it  in  an  invisible  state.  In  the  town,  in  which 
the  writer  of  this  resides,  it  was  observed  that  on  and 
near  a  certain  pond,  it  snowed  constantly  during  the 
latter  part  of  the  eclipse,  while  at  a  distance  from  the 
pond  no  snow  fell.  In  this  case  it  would  seem  that  the 
atmosphere  over  the  pond  was  saturated  with  moisture, 
and  that  as  the  air  over  land  cools  more  rapidly  than  that 
over  water,  the  colder  air  from  the  land  moved  towards 
the  pond  and  produced  the  condensation  of  vapor  and  the 
consequent  formation  of  snow  which  was  noticed. 

Perhaps  there  is  scarcely  any  operation  of  nature,  which 
more  strikingly  displays  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  God, 
than  evaporation.  Let  this  cease,  and  the  earth  would 
become  a  desolate  waste,  except  where  the  laborious  ef- 
forts of  man  might,  by  frequent  watering,  create  a  spot  of 
verdure  here  and  there,  amid  the  desert.  The  important 
effects  resulting  from  so  simple  a  cause  may  well  lead  us 
to  admire  the  wisdom  and  goodness  of  that  Being  who  is 
'  wise  in  counsel,  and  wonderful  in  working,'  and  who 
'  maketh  the  sun  to  rise  on  the  evil  and  the  good,  and 
sendeth  rain  on  the  just  and  on  the  unjust.' 

The  facts  mentioned  in  the  foregoing  pages  show  that 
the  subject  of  evaporation,  especially  when  considered  in 
connexion  with  changes  of  the  weather  and  with  meteor- 
ology in  general,  opens  a  wide  and  interesting  field  for 
reflection  and  investigation.  And  this  field  is  open  to  all. 
Here  he  who  will  may  study  the  operations  of  nature,  and 
search  for  the  principles  by  which  those  operations  are 
guided  and  on  which  they  are  conducted. 

To  the  reflecting  mind  it  is  ever  a  source  of  pleasure 
to  be  able  to  trace  effects  up  to  causes,  and  to  ascertain 
the  various  relations  which  subsist  among  the  works  of 
nature.  Indeed,  who  would  not  prefer  the  knowledge  of  a 
Franklin  who  could  trace  the  lightning's  path  and  guide 
it  to  the  ground,  to  that  of  him  who  thinks  there  will  be  a 
thunder-shower  to-day  because  the  clouds  look  as  they  did 
last  year  before  a  thunder-shower,  but  who  knows  nothing 


278  EVAPORATION. 


of  the  nature  or  cause  of  the  magnificent  display  of  power 
and  grandeur,  which  he  is  about  to  witness. 

It  is  a  fact,  which,  were  it  not  so  common,  would  strike 
us  with  surprise,  that  multitudes,  although  nature  is  con- 
stantly exhibiting  to  their  view  interesting  phenomena 
and  beautiful  illustrations  of  philosophical  principles,  yet 
pursue  their  way  amid  all  her  sublime  scenery  and  inter- 
esting illustrations,  unconscious  that  they  themselves  are 
thereby  furnished  with  any  means  of  intellectual  improve- 
ment, or  sources  from  which  they  may  derive  accessions  to 
their  stock  of  knowledge.  — And  it  is  a  lamentable  fact, 
that  many  teachers  have  yet  to  learn  that  the  laboratory 
of  nature  is  one  of  the  most  important  objects  to  which 
they  can  direct  the  attention  of  their  pupils.  Many  seem 
to  imagine  that  when  they  have  conveyed  to  those  under 
their  instruction,  the  ideas  contained  in  a  certain  number 
of  books,  they  have  done  all  that  is  required  of  them. 
It  does  not  even  occur  to  their  minds  that  the  book  of 
nature,  which  is  open  to  the  eyes  of  ail  who  will  read, 
contains  any  valuable  instruction.  But  let  them  once 
become  accustomed  to  directing  the  minds  of  their  pupils 
to  the  operations  of  nature;  —  let  them  once  familiarize 
themselves  with  the  practice  of  referring  to  scenes  and 
.events  around  them  for  illustrations  of  philosophical  prin- 
ciples, and  they  will  find  science  in  everything  ;  —  they 
will  find  it  in  the  wind  that  sweeps  over  the  hills,  in  the 
clouds  that  hang  on  the  mountain's  top,  in  the  fire  that 
burns  on  the  hearth,  and  even  in  the  fly  that  crawls  on  the 
window.  Few  things  are  more  important  for  men  and 
especially  for  teachers  to  learn,  than  that  science  is  not  to 
be  considered  as  standing  aloof  from  the  common  con- 
cerns of  life,  but  that  it  is  simply  the  explanation  of  facts 
and  events  which  in  different  ages  have  arrested  the  at- 
tention of  observing  and  reflecting  minds.  —  The  book  of 
nature  is  open  with  lessons  appropriate  for  all.  A  very 
simple  problem  in  mechanics  or  hydrostatics  presented  by 
the  operations  of  nature,  may  be  as  truly  a  source,  and 
perhaps  as  great  a  source  of  mental  improvement  to  one 
individual,  as  a  much  more  difficult  one  to  another  whose 
mind  is  more  expanded  and  better  disciplined.  Then  let 
not  him  who  cannot  have  access  to  the  volumes  in  which. 


EVAPORATION.  279 


are  contained  the  results  of  laborious  research  and  scien- 
tific investigation,  conclude  that  he  is  thereby  debarred 
from  all  means  of  intellectual  cultivation.  Let  him  ex- 
amine with  a  spirit  of  inquiry  and  investigation  the 
scenes  around  him.  Let  him  search  for  knowledge  in 
the  trees  of  the  forest  and  the  stones  of  the  brook  ;  —  let 
him  lay  nature  under  contribution  to  increase  his  stock 
of  knowledge  and  he  will  find  that  her  instruction  is 
freely  given,  and  that  exertions  made  to  gain  knowledge 
carry  their  own  rewards  with  them.  Let  it  be  proclaimed 
till  it  shall  sound  in  the  ears  of  every  teacher  who  is  not 
awake  to  that  which  is  both  his  interest  and  his  duty, 
that  there  is  a  way  by  which  his  instructions  may  be  ren- 
dered doubly  interesting  and  doubly  profitable  to  those 
who  are  placed  under  his  care.  If  he  has  become  wea- 
ried by  listening  to  the  same  dull  sound  of  recitations, 
and  has  found  his  pupils  not  less  so  by  conning  over  again 
and  again  the  same  lesson,  let  him  lead  them  out  into  the 
fields  of  nature  ;  —  let  him  vary  and  diversify  his  instruc- 
tions by  visible  illustrations  drawn  from  scenes  and  objects 
around  him,  and  see  if  he  does  not  find  anew  charm 
thrown  over  the  objects  to  which  his  attention  is  directed. 
He  will  find  such  a  course  a  source  of  improvement 
scarcely  less  important  to  himself  than  to  his  pupils.  By 
the  intellectual  effort  thus  required,  and  the  new  ideas 
thus  elicited,  he  will  find  that  his  own  mind  is  expanded 
and  enlarged,  and  that  while  he  is  endeavoringto  enlighten 
the  minds  of  those  under  his  instruction,  he  is  perform- 
ing the  same  office  for  his  own  mind. 

But  it  is  not  in  Natural  Philosophy  alone  that  the  intelli- 
gent and  faithful  instructor  will  seek  to  diversify  and 
elucidate  the  principles  of  science,  by  familiar  and  varied 
illustrations  drawn  from  objects  around  him.  In  almost 
every  path  of  science,  nature  has  scattered  flowers,  which 
the  hand  of  the  diligent  and  attentive  lover  of  knowledge 
will  not  fail  to  gather.  Human  character  and  human 
actions  are  among  the  most  interesting  objects  of  contem- 
plation that  can  be  presented  to  the  mind  of  man.  While, 
therefore,  the  instructor,  who  loves  his  employment,  will 
delight  to  refer  to  the  material  world  for  illustrations  in 


280  EVAPORATION. 


Natural  Philosophy,  he  will  see  that  the  world  of  mind 
furnishes  him  with  illustrations  perhaps,  not  less  extensive 
and  interesting,  pertaining  to  Mental  Philosophy.  The 
mind  here  has  its  laboratory  within  itself,  and  the  dreams 
of  the  night,  the  actions  and  thoughts  of  the  day,  and  the 
opinions  and  ideas  brought  to  view  by  the  ever  fluctua- 
ting tide  of  popular  opinion,  will  furnish  him  with  many 
an  interesting  illustration  of  the  laws  of  mind.  Even  in 
the  sports  of  childhood,  the  attentive  observer  will  find 
much  that  is  interesting,  much  that  elucidate  the  princi- 
ples on  which  the  mind  of  aspiring  and  intellectual  man 
is  wont  to  act.  And  many  an  important  principle  of  the 
sciences  which  pass  under  the  high-sounding  names  of 
rhetoric,  logic,  and  intellectual  philosophy,  may  receive 
simple  and  yet  beautiful  illustrations  from  the  words  and 
actions  of  the  child,  who,  as  yet,  knows  nothing  of  the 
sounding  names' by  which  those  operations  are  designated 
in  the  halls  of  science. 

If  the  above  remarks  are  thought  to  be  too  great  a  devi- 
ation from  the  professed  subject  of  this  Tract,  the  writer 
can  only  reply,  that  they  are  such  as  suggested  themselves 
to  his  own  mind  in  connexion  with  the  subject,  and  that 
he  therefore  inserted  them,  hoping  that  if  they  were  not 
very  closely  connected  with  the  subject,  yet  as  they  seem- 
ed to  arise  from  it,  they  might  be  useful  in  exciting  atten- 
tion to  the  important  principle  of  education  which  they 
are  intended  to  enforce. 


BOSTON: 
PUBLISHED     BY     U  ART  E  R,   H  E  N  DE  E    &    BABCOCK. 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 



BOSTON      CLASSIC     PRESS I.     R.     BUTTS. 

%*  TERMS — 24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  FIFTY 

CENTS. 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER   XII. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

THE    EAR. 
BY  JEROME  V.  C.  SMITH,  M.  D. 

THE  ear,  that  organ  by  which  we  are  made  sensible 
of  the  imptession  of  sound,  in  the  higher  species  of  ani- 
mals, is  a  very  complicated  instrument.  ^  It  is  a  beautiful 
piece  of  mechanism,  more  intricate  than  a  timepiece, 
'  and  no  less  wonderful  in  structure,  than  the  arrangement 
of  the  numerous  pipes  of  a  church  organ. 

It  is  a  curious  circumstance  in  the  economy  of  organ- 
ized beings,  that  the  central  portion  of  the  human  ear, 
termed  the  saculus  vestibnK,  hereafter  to  be  described,  is 
the  basis  of  the  apparatus  of  hearing  in  all  animals  with 
which  naturalists  are  acquainted,  with  the  exception 
of  insects,*,  but  becoming  more  and  more  complex  as 
inferior  grades  approximate  the  physical  perfectibility  of 
man. 

Sound  being  a  vibratory  motion  of  the  air,  first  put  in 
motion  by  a  solid  body,  is  collected  by  the  ear  as  the 
pulsations  travel  onward,  and  transmitted  directly  to  the 
auditory  or  seventh  pair  of  nerves,  —  mere  filaments,  like 
two  white  cotton  threads,  which  communicate  the  fact  of 
these  vibrations  to  the  sensorium,  —  or,  in  other  words, 
produce  a  corresponding  Change  in  the  brain. 

fc  The  antenna  of  insects  are  considered  the  only  organs  with 
which  they  are  furnished,  that  convey  a  sensation  analogous  to 
hearing.  By  the  vibrations  communicated  to  the  body,  through 
these,  they  are  probably  made  susceptible  of  simple  sonorous  im- 
pressions. 

VOL.    I.  NO.  XII.  25 


282  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

Taking  it  for  granted,  that  the  reader  has  already  a 
thorough  knowledge  of  the  doctrine  of  acoustics,  diacous- 
tics  and  catacoustics,  we  shall  steadily  pursue  that  kind 
of  popular  philosophical  examination  of  the  ear,  which 
has  been  the  endeavor  in  a  preceding  essay  on  the  me- 
chanism of  the  eye. 

Those  beings  only,  which  are  denominated  locomotive, 
having  the  power  of  moving  themselves  from  one  place 
to  another,  have  an  ear.  The  circumstance  of  the  exist- 
ence of  this  faculty,  presupposes  some  sort  of  auditory 
contrivance,  by  which  the  creature  can  be  made  con- 
scious of  the  certain  existence  of  near  foes,  or  its  friends 
and  species.  Without  this  sense,  of  such  vast  importance 
to  man,  inferior  tribes  would  be  constantly  exposed  to 
dangers  and  even  destruction  —  as  they  would  necessa- 
rily be  obliged  to  move  towards  an  apprehended  evil,  to 
see  it,  in  order  to  be  certain.  Nature  has  not  been  ne- 
glectful in  granting  the  necessary  means  of  happiness  to 
every  being,  in  proportion  to  its  wants  in  the  sphere  in 
which  it  is  destined  to  live;  nor  partial  to  man,  in  the 
development  of  all  his  senses,  to  the  exclusion  of  other 
animals,  whose  physical  propensities,  necessities  and  cir- 
cumstances are  of  as  much  importance  to  them,  in  the 
scale  of  existence,  as  his  own. 

EXTERNAL    EAR.* 

That  appendage  termed  auricula,  pinna  or  cxterna 
ear,  peculiar  to  all  the  warm  blooded  quadrupeds,  divest- 
ed of  the  skin,  is  a  thin,  delicate  piece  of  cartilage,  quite 
elastic,  and  bearing  some  resemblance,  in  this  respect,  to 
parchment.  On  its  outer  surface,  on  such  as  carry  the 
ear  erect,  it  is  generally  concave,  but  thrown  into  deep 
semicircular  grooves,  which  terminate  in  one  large  dish, 
surrounding  the  canal  that  enters  the  bones,  called  concha, 
because  it  resembles  a  shell.  The  lines/or  eminences 
lying  between  the  furrows,  have  definite  names,  as  helix, 
antihelix,  tragusand  antitragus,  and  lastly,  the  fat  pendu- 
lous portion,  on  the  under  edge  of  the  ear, —  in  which  trin- 
kets are  worn,  occasionally,  in  civilized  society,  in  hum- 
ble imitation  of  genuine  savage  life,  —  the  lobus. 

*  So  called  from  aura,  air. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


283 


FIG.  1. 


Explanation  of  Figure  1. 
This  is  a  well  marked  car 

of  a  man,  drawn  from  life. 

a  to  e  —  The  helix,  forming 
the  rim. 

a  —  The  upper  end  or  com- 
mencement of  the  rim,  slop- 
ing into  the  concha. 

b  —  Part  of  the  edge  lost  in 
the  face. 

c,  d  —  Prominent  from  the 
head. 

e  —  The  fold  terminating  in 
.the  lobule  of  the  ear. 

fio  m —  The  antihelix. 

/,  g  —  The  upper  end  divid- 
ed into  two  ridges,  —  h  the 
union  of  them,  — /  and  g. 

i,  k  —  lower  end  of  the  anti- 
helix,  continued  at  i  into 
the  concha,  and  at  k  into 
antitragus. 

I  —  The  tragus  covering  the 
entrance  to  the  ear — like 
a  post  at  the  corner  of  a  street 
to  prevent  sudden  injury. 

m  —  Antitragus. 

n  —  Lobe  of  the  ear,  usually  bored. 

oo  —  Furrow  between  the  helix  and  antihelix. 

p  —  The  boat  like  depression  between  the  lines  of  the  antihelix 

x  —  The  concha. 

r  —  The  beginning  of  the  meatus  auditorious. 

MUSCLES. 

Although  in  the  human  species,  there  are  muscles  which 
seem  at  first  sight  to  have  been  designed  for  moving  the 
ear  in  different  directions,  their  office  is  expressly 
to  keep  the  cartilage  tense,  —  equally  on  the  stretch  at 
all  points,  to  increase  its  vibratory  property.  Occasion- 
ally, individuals  are  seen  who  have  such  development 
of  the  auricular  muscles,  as  to  be  able  to  move  their  ears 
at  pleasure.  Wags  and  buffoons  are  sometimes  expert  in 
the  exercise.  Several  physiologists  have  suggested  that 
mankind,  in  these  degenerate  days,  have  lost  the  power 
of  moving  their  ears,  by  wearing  hats,  bonnets  and  such 
like  unphilosophical  coverings  for  the  head,  and  in  cor- 
roboration,  (by  way  of  sustaining  an  argument,)  make 
reference  to  some  solitary  examples  of  ancient  statues, 


284 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


on  which  the  ears  are  represented  as  standing  outward 
and  forward.     There  are  three  of  these  muscles  or  cords. 


FIG.    2. 


Explanation  of  Figure  2. 

In  this  plate  is  represented  the  muscles  peculiar  to  the  external  ear. 
o-12-e-fhe  cartilege  of  the  ear,  as  seen  on  that  side  looks  towards 

fiop-  ThTattolcns  Mreft,  or  lifter  up  of  the  ear.    f-g-h-i-^ 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  285 


upper  end  of  it.     l-m  —  shows  where  it  becomes  tendinous  on 

the  bones  of  the  head,     o-p  —  attached  to  prominences. 
g  to  t  —  The  anterior  auris,  placed  between  the  face  and  ear.     q-r 

—  the  portion  of  it  connected  to  the  muscle  of  the  forehead,  — 

growing  narrower  at  s,  and  inserted  into  the  helix  at  t. 
u-z  —  Two  muscles,  or  rather,  two  portions  of  one,  retrahentes 

aurum,  to  draw  the  ear  back  from  the  face. 
u-v-w-x  —  The  upper  or  larger  portion,  consisting  of  fleshy  fibres, 

n,  v,  w. 
y-z  —  The  inferior  portion  of  the  same  muscle. 

All  such  animals  as  keep  their  ears  habitually  erect,  as 
the  fox,  lynx,  cat,  horse,  ox,  ass  and  various  species  of 
the  dog,  maintain  them  in  that  position  by  the  strength 
of  the  muscles,  which  are  thoroughly  developed,  strong 
and  under  the  control  of  the  will.  Such  as  have  this 
characteristic,  are  either  timid,  feeble,  harmless  creatures, 
or  distinguished  for  their  rapacity,  cruelty  and  propensity 
for  slaughter. 

In  either  case,  it  is  necessary  for  safety  on  the  one 
hand,  or  success  in  seizing  prey,  by  surprise,  on  the 
other,  for  the  animal  to  have  a  distinct  auricular  percep- 
tion, accompanied  by  a  nice  sense  of  smell.  By  remain- 
ing perfectly  quiet,  the  ears  are  directed  to  and  fro,  as 
circumstances  may  require,  to  receive,  most  favorably 
and  forcibly  the  sonorous  rays,  —  without  being  obliged 
to  move  the  head.*  Elephants,  hounds,  beside  an  al- 
most endless  catalogue  of  mammalia,  have  pendular 
ears  hanging  down  over  the  ear  pipe,  as  though  the  de- 
sign was  to  defend  the  orifice  ;  —  in  these  examples,  the 
muscles  are  small,  as  they  are  in  man,  and  finally,  in  age, 
for  want  of  use,  become  indistinct  on  dissection. 

Birds  have  but  a  slight  rim,  approaching  in  outline,  the 
pinna ;  lizards,  of  which  there  are  about  forty  varieties, 
as  well  as  serpents  and  other  reptiles,  have  nothing  ex- 
ternally resembling  an  ear  :  in  some,  it  is  difficult,  on 
close  examination,  to  discover  the  precise  spot  where  the 
nerve  of  the  auditory  machine  is  located.  Fishes  are 

*  It  is  a  favorite  theory  with  me,  that  an  ear  trumpet  for  d«eaf 
people,  instead  of  being  like  the  funnel  of  a  common  bugle,  should 
have  a  broad  plate  grooved,  and  indeed,  wrought  in  exact  imitation 
of  the  external  human  ear,  it  being  certain  that  this  is  the  best  mode 
of  directing  sound  into  the  head,  or  nature  would  have  constructed 
it  differently. 

VOL.    I. NO.    XII.  25* 


236  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

also  dsstitute  of  an  external  accompaniment  of  the  inner 
organ,  and  yet  all  these  families,  including  the  amphibi- 
ous, as  frogs,  turtles  and  the  like,  have  a  beautifully  con- 
structed internal  ear,  as  remarkable,  so  far  as  a  mechani- 
*cal  arrangement  of  parts  is  concerned,  in  conveying  the 
pulsation  of  sound,  as  that  of  the  most  favored  musician. 
In  the  sequel,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  common  skin  of 
their  bodies,  drawn  as  it  is  over  the  opening  in  the  head, 
answers  two  important  offices  in  the  function  of  hearing. 

EAR   TUBE.* 

When  the  temporal  or  side  bone  of  the  head,  contain- 
ing, entirely,  the  internal  ear,  is  carefully  sawed  in  twain, 
the  canal,  of  which  we  are  speaking,  will  be  found  about 
three  quarters  of  an  inch  in  length,  and  somewhat  coni- 
cal, being  contracted  towards  its  inner  extremity  —  and, 
on  an  average,  a  little  less  than  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in 
diameter.  This  passage  is  a  gentle  curve,  as  the  tube, 
from  the  external  opening,  rises  upward,  but  at  half  its 
length,  turns  downward  again,  and  there  bulges  out  in 
shape,  something  like  the  bowl  of  a  spoon.  A  delicate 
rim,  like  a  moulding  rises  on  the  edge  of  this  expanded 
mouth,  for  sustaining  the  drum  head,  soon  to  be  noticed, 
very  much  like  the  method  of  nailing  a  hoop  within  the 
mouth  of  a  barrel,  near  the  chime,  to  keep  the  head  from 
falling  in.  To  afford  greater  surface,  that  the  drum 
head  may  be  considerably  larger  than  the  extremity  of 
the  tube  would  allow,  were  it  stretched  perpendicularly 
across,  it  is  sloped,  so  that  it  requires  an  oval  cover,  under 
such  circumstances,  very  much  larger,  than  if  it  were 
round,  and  fitted  to  the  square  end  of  the  pipe.  All  this 
may  be  examined  in  the  temporal  bone  of  a  horse,  sheep, 
or  dog's  skull,  as  they  are  found  bleaching  in  the  fields. 
In  these  animals,  the  analogy  to  the  human  is  particu- 
larly strikincr.  The  common  skin  of  the  face  is  carried 
within  the  tube,  for  its  lining,  but  perforated  in  numerous 
pFaces,  by  the  ducts  of  delicate  little  bags,  lying  between 
the  bone  and  skin,  which  are  constantly  secreting  and 
pouring  out  a  bitter,  nauseous  oil  or  wax.  The  object  of 

*In  books,  termed  tlio  Metus  auditorius  externus,  —  simply 
meaning  the  external  passage  to  the  inner  cavities. 


AMMAL    MECHANISM. 


287 


this  excretion  is  two  fold,  viz.  first,  to  keep  the  lining  moist 
and  pliable  ;  and  secondly,  to  kill  insects  that  may  intrude 
there.*  Crossing  this  canal,  from  the  sides,  are  strong 
short  hairs,  intersecting  each  other  in  such  a  manner, 
that  an  insect  must  overcome  the  resistance  of  these 
pikes,  or  chevaux  de  frise,  in  case  the  wax  t  does  not 
arrest  its  progress,  before  reaching  the  drum  head,  where 
its  peregrinations  are  impassably  limited. f 

*Ear  wax,  (cerumen  aitrium)  is  certain  death  to  insects  that  feed 
upon  it ;  though  its  composition  is  such,  that  they  cannot  restrain 
their  appetites  when  pent  up  where  it  is.  Naturalists  have  taken  a 
hint  from  this,  to  prevent  the  depredations  of  insects  on  dried  prepa 
rations  in  cabinets,  by  washing  them  in  some  bitter  decoction,  as 
aloes  or  other  vegetable  bitters. 

t  At  birth,  the  tube  is  filled  with  a  viscid  mucous,  which,  in  some 
children,  unless  speedily  taken  away,  forms  a  cake  of  hard  wax, 
completely  closing  it;  and  by  the  time  the  articulative  organs  arc 
developed,  the  child  is  actually  deaf  and  dumb.  There  seems  to 
be  a  peculiar  predisposition  to  this  course  in  some  families.  In 
others,  children  after  having  once  talked,  lose  their  hearing  at  four  or 
five  years  of  age,  and  become  permanently  deaf  and  dumb. 

J  NVhen  the  glands  are  diseased,  in  consequence  of  a  chronic  in- 
flammation, a  thin,  purulent  discharge  takes  place,  giving  the  indi- 
vidual, in  some  instances,  trouble,  inconvenience,  and  pain  through 
life.  I  have  seen  a  skull,  in  which  the  entire  tube,  on  one  side, 
was  closed  up  by  a  deposition  of  bone.  The  opposite  ear  was  par- 
tially diseased  in  the  same  manner,  but  the  peculiar  circumstances 
of  the  case,  while  the  person  was  alive,  could  not  be  ascertained. 


Explanation  of  Figure  3. 

This  has  been  an  exceed- 
ingly difficult  plan  of  the  ear 
to  execute,  so  as  to  give  the 
exact  relation  of  parts  ;  — 
hence  it  is  very  much  fore- 
shortened. 

c  to  d,  —  cc,  The  mealus  ex- 
ternus,  as  it  appears,  taken 
from  the  bone  ;  b,  c,  its  two 
curvatures; — the  first  e; 
the  second  c  :  —  dd,  the  ob- 
lique slant,  like  a  spoon 
bowl,  at  the  inner  end,  cov- 
ered by  the  drum  head, 
spoken  of  in  the  text. 
e  —  The  membrana  tympani, 
stretched  on  its  bony  hoop, 
bulging  inward. 


FIG.  3. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM, 


The  remaining  parts,  beyond  the  boundary  of  the  membrane,  re- 
main to  be  described,  particularly,  although  represented  here  for  the 
sake  of  keeping  up  the  connexion  of  parts  in  the  mind. 
/,  g,  /i  — The  malleus;  f  its  handle ;  g  its  long  handle;  h  the  head 

or  bulb. 

i,  k  —  inchus,  or  anvil;  i  short,  and  k,  long  processes,  m  stapes. 
V,  H,  A,  m,  n,p,  —  The  labyrinth;  n,p  the  cochlea,  n  the  begin- 
ning, p  termination,  m  the  vestibulum. 

NOTE. — I  have  found  immense  difficulty  in  demonstrating  this  or- 
gan, without  very  large  models:  —  one  now  in  my  cabinet,  made  of 
wood,  magnifies  the  internal  ear  three  feet,  which  can  be  seen  and 
understood  in  all  its  relations.  Formerly,  when  I  taught  anatomy 
at  the  Berkshire  Medical  Institution,  it  was  customary  to  suppose 
the  medical  college  an  ear,  and  thus,  illustrate  its  intricacies,  by 
constant  reference  to  the  apartments  and  passage  ways  of  that 
edifice. 

THE    DRUM,    Oil   MEMBRANA    TYMPANI.    (*) 

From  the  foregoing  description  of  the  mcatus  or  canal, 
the  exact  locality  of  the  drum  head  will  be  understood. 
Fitted  to  the  rim  of  bone,  in  a  manner  similar  to  the 
parchment  over  the  barrel  of  a  snare  drum,  —  it  is  kept 
perfectly  tense,  but  by  an  arrangement  of  fibres  peculiar 
to  its  organization,  which  is  not  clearly  comprehended 
by  anatomists.  It  is  oval  in  shape,  and  somewhat  con- 
cave outwardly,  and  so  transparent  and  thin,  that  objects 
can  be  seen  through  it,  being  of  the  color  of  white  oiled 
paper  ;  any  person  of  common  ingenuity,  can  dissect  this 
beautiful  membrane  in  the  head  of  a  dead  fowl,  in  five 
minutes,  with  the  point  of  a  knife.  It  then  presents  a 
striking  resemblance  to  a  battledoor.  This  closes  up 
the  extremity  of  the  tube,  in  a  healthy  ear  ;  notwithstand- 
ing, it  is  frequently  ruptured  by  the  firing  of  heavy  guns, 
inflammation,  and  other  accidents,  without  producing 
deafness.  Across  this  drum,  a  fine  thread  of  a  nerve  is 
drawn,  called  corda  tympani,  which  gives  it  the  requisite 
sensibility  and  connexion  with  the  system  of  sensation. 

(l)  Lobsters,  crabs,  and  in  fact,  all  that  remarkable  class  of  ani- 
mals, whose  skeletons  are  outside  of  the  body,  in  the  form  of  a  shell, 
have  their  ears  placed  at  the  extremities  of  projecting  points.  The 
lobster's  can  be  detected  at  the  end  of  a  short  stump,  near  the  root 
of  the  long  feelers  —  it  consists  of  a  perforated  bony  papilla,  having 
a  membrane  stretched  over  it,  —  covering  a  drop  of  fluid,  in  which 
floats  the  auditory  nerve. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  289 

When  a  pin-head  is  introduced  far  enough  to  touch  the 
drum  head,  an  exquisitely  acute  pain  is  the  conse- 
quence, from  pressing  the  nerve. 

I  have  seen  men  with  the  membranes  ruptured  on  both 
sides,  which  was  inferred  from  the  fact,  that  in  smoking, 
they  puffed  the  fumes,  for  amusement,  out  at  their  ears,  — 
yet  the  sense  of  hearing,  in  them,  did  not  appear  im- 
paired. The  rationale  of  this  will  be  subsequently 
explained.  The  deafness  of  old  people  might  in  some 
instances  be  alleviated  by  puncturing  the  membrane, 
which,  by  age,  has  become  thickened  and  inelastic.  A 
distinguished  surgeon  in  England,  but  a  few  years  since, 
discovered  that  by  making  an  opening  through  the  drum 
head,  in  peculiar  cases,  restored  the  diseased  ear,  instan- 
ter :  the  same  operation  is  now  successfully  practised  in 
this  city. 

No  one  can  be  in  doubt  as  respects  the  office  of  this 
membrane:  it  receives  the  sonorous  rays — having  a 
broad  surface,  and  being  on  the  stretch,  is  put  in  vibra- 
tory motion  by  the  slightest  pulsations  in  the  air, — 
which  it  transmits  to  the  still  more  important  apparatus 
within. 

We  have  remarked  that  reptiles  and  fishes  have  no 
discernible  external  orifice: — the  external  surface  ap- 
pears smooth,  as  though  they  were  destitute  of  this 
valuable  sense.  Under  the  skin,  however,  and  in  the 
bone  answering  to  the  temporal  one  in  man,  there  is 
around  hole,  —  growing  larger  within.  This  cavity  is 
the  tympanum  or  drum  barrel  —  answering  to  the  apart- 
ment beyond  the  drum  head,  in  men  and  quadrupeds, 
next  to  be  elucidated.  The  common  skin,  which  is  thus 
drawn  over  the  mouth  of  the  tympanum,  acts  precisely  as 
the  drum  head  does, — vibrating  to  the  least  noise,  with 
exceeding  nicety.  In  the  economy  of  reptiles  —  those 
scavengers  of  the  earth,  created  to  wallow  in  filth  —  at  the 
threshold  of  organic  life,  an  external  ear  or  opening, 
would  be  soon  destroyed,  by  being  filled  with  mud, 
gravel  or  insects.  The  skin  over  the  frog's  ear  and  the 
catnelion,  is  very  dense,  shining  and  tremulous.  Frogs, 
particularly,  have  a  splendid  circular  piece  of  skin  over 
the  tympanum,  just  back  of  their  large  prominent  eyes. 


290 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


There  is  a  necessity  for  uncommon  delicacy,  in  their 
case,  as  their  ear  is  constructed  for  hearing  with  equal 
precision  in  water  as  well  as  air.  (2) 


INTERNAL    EAR. 

All  parts  beyond  the  drum  head  are  collectively  called 
the  labyrinth,  in  consequence,  probably,  of  their  intri- 
cacy. 

To  understand  the  arrangement  of  the  apartments  to 
which  the  reader  is  now  to  be  introduced,  requires  pa- 
tience, as  well  as  close  observation,  or  the  mechanism 
cannot  be  comprehended.  First  the 

TYMPANUM. 

Directly  beyond  the  membrane  is  a  small  room,  of  the 
capacity  of  a  common  white  bean.  Its  name  is  derived 
from  a  word,  meaning  a  drum,  as  it  is  one  in  office, 
but  having,  instead  of  one  head  like  the  kettle  or 
two  as  in  the  snare  drum,  it  has  three  heads; — the 
argest  of  which  is  towards  the  outer  ear,  —  while  at  the 
other  end  of  the  barrel,  are  two  little  ones. 

This  labyrinth  constitutes  the  difficulty  in  studying  the 
anatomy  of  this  part  of  the  system.  Three  distinct 

(2)  In  that  class  of  serpents  which  is  covered  with  scales,  the 
external  contrivance  of  a  tense  skin  over  the  internal  ear,  is  far  infe- 
rior to  the  frog  or  lizard's: — to  the  underside  of  a  cluster  of  thin 
scales,  wedged  in  the  loose  dermoid  texture,  a  slender  bone,  in 
in  figure  like  the  pestle  of  a  mortar,  runs  into  the  tube,  towards  the 
brain,  and  plays  into  the  fenestra  ovalis. 

All  the  varieties  of  serpents  are  distinguished  for  their  delicacy 
in  the  perception  of  sound.  The  boa  family,  particularly,  are 
those  which  exhibit  the  most  satisfaction  in  music.  The  writer 
has  carefully  examined  a  boa  constrictor,  which  when  fully  grown, 
is  horrible  to  the  sight,  that  was  inattentive  to  sounds,  except  when 
hungry.  At  such 'times,  the  scratch  of  a  pin  against  the  wall, 
roused  the  monster  to  unceasing  watchfulness.  The  ear  of  the  land 
tortoise,  and  the  rattlesnake,  both  of  which  are  in  my  collection,  do 
not  differ  as  much  as  the  physiologist  might  at  first  suppose  —  though 
in  the  water  turtle,  constituted  for  hearing  alternately  in  air  and 
water,  there  is  a  perceptible  difference.  In  the  first,  a  single  bone 
is  found  ;  while  in  the  latter,  in  addition  to  the  bone,  there  are  fine 
chalky  particles,  which  move  against  each  other,  to  propagate  the 
motion  or  noise  in  the  water,  to  tlie  ear  containing  the  ramifications 
of  ihft  nerve. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  291 

apartments,  or  rooms,  one  beyond  the  other,  which,  in 
antomical  works,  have  further  minute  subdivisions, 
collectively,  make  up  the  labyrinth.  —  First,  the  tympa- 
num, just  adverted  to;  Secondly,  the  vestibule;  and 
thirdly,  the  conchlca.  In  connexion  with  these  are  certain 
tubes,  having  sundry  barbarous,  unintelligible  names, 
which  are  not  remembered  by  one  physician  in  a  hun- 
dred, nor,  indeed,  is  it  at  all  necessary.  Though  retained 
in  modern  books  of  science,  modern  authors  do  not 
seem  to. have  the  courage  to  discard  them. 

Behind  the  ear,  a  hard  knob  of  bone  may  be  felt,  with 
the  finger,  (mastoid  process)  on  which  that  muscle  is 
fastened,  which,  with  its  fellow  on  the  opposite  side,  brings 
the  head  forward,  as  in  bowing  :  within,  this  knob 
is  hollow  —  being  full  of  conical  cells,  resembling  the 
spokes  of  a  wheel,  growing  smaller  as  they  unite  in  one 
pipe,  which  opens  into  the  tympanum  or  drum  barrel. 
Physiologists  agree  that  the  use  of  these  cells  is  for  rever- 
berating sound,  that  it  may  gain  strength  by  being  re- 
flected from  wall  to  wall,  in  order  to  excite  a  stronger 
sensation  when  conveyed  to  the  nerve  :  these  are  partic- 
ularly large  in  some  animals.*  A  similar  piece  of 
mechanism  is  discoverable  in  the  cheek  bones,  and  even 
the  centre  bone  of  the  skull,  for  reverberating  and 
strengthening  the  voice.  Lions,  have  large  cavities  in 
the  bones  of  their  heads  and  faces,  on  purpose  to  increase 
the  intensity  of  the  vibrations  ;  —  hence  their  charac- 
teristic roar. 

In  another  direction,  is  the  minute  orifice  of  a  cone- 
shaped  pipe,  eustuchian  tube,  that  opens  with  a  trumpet 
like  extremity  in  the  mouth,  —  it  being  necessary  to  the 
free  vibration  of  the  drum  head,  that  the  same  quality  of 
air  that  transmits  the  sonorous  pulsations,  should  also 

*  In  a  recent  letter  from   the  venerable  Dr  James  Thacher,  of 
Plymouth,  the  following  curious  fact  is  related  : 

•  Reflection  of  Sound.'  — '  A  gentleman  told  me,  today,  (May  3d, 
1831,)  that  a  few  days  since,  he  was  passing  through  one  of  our 
streets,  where    there   were   considerable    intervals    between  the 
houses,  —  a  gentleman  totally  blind,  walking  with  him,  assured  him 
that  he  knew  exactly  when  he  was  passing  a  building,  by  a  peculiar 
sensation  in  his  ears,  occasioned  by  a  different  concussion  of  the  air.' 


292  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

exist  on  the  opposite  side,  within  the  barrel  :  the  use  of 
the  eustachian  tube  (so  called  from  Eustachias,  the 
discoverer)  is  to  admit  it.  Nothing,  therefore,  is  more  com- 
pletely an  imitation  of  the  tympanum  of  the  ear,  than  the 
martial  drum,  which  has  a  little  hole  in  the  side,  equiva- 
lent to  this  we  are  describing,  descending  to  the  mouth, 
the  nearest  point  from  which  atmospheric  air  could  be 
taken,  without  disarranging  or  disturbing  the  functions 
of  vital  organs.  By  closing  the  sounding  hole  of  the 
drum,  the  music  is  less  audible  —  sounding,  when  the 
air  inside  becomes  rarefied,  like  music  in  a  well.  The 
reason  is,  the  equal  balance  of  air  is  destroyed  :  —  such 
is  the  object  and  office  of  the  eustachian  tube.  Some- 
times, in  violent  sneezing,  or  sudden  cough,  thepatulous 
mouths  get  stopped  for  an  instant  with  saliva;  and  many 
readers  are  probably  familiar  with  the  sensation  of  fulness 
that  ensues,  —  giddiness  and  ringing  in  the  ears,  to  the 
annihilation  of  accurate  auricular  perceptions,  till  the 
cause  is  removed.  In  bathing,  it  is  not  unusual  to  get, 
as  it  is  quaintly  called,  a  bubble  in  the  ear,  —  producing 
these  characteristic  symptoms.  (3) 

There  are  many  existing  cases  of  deafness,  having 
their  origin  in  some  such  cause  :  the  pipe  finally  inflames, 
and  becomes  permanently  sealed :  a  skilful  aurist,  un- 
der such  circumstances,  will  adroitly  puncture  the  drum 
head,  with  an  instrument  purposely  constructed  and 
relieve  the  patient,  without  pain. 

FENESTRA  OVALIS. 

Fenestra  Ovdlis  means  an  oval  window  covered  by  one 
of  the  two  little  drum  heads.  Beyond  this,  supposing  a 
person  could  pass  through,  he  would  arrive  in  the  vesti- 

(3)  Notwithstanding  the  fine  arguments  of  medical  writers  to 
the  contrary,  I  believe  that  partially  deaf  persons  hear  better  when 
the  mouth  is  open ;  instinctively,  it  may  be  observed,  such  indivi- 
duals listen  with  an  open  mouth.  The  pulsations  of  sound  thus 
enter  the  tympanum  and  set  the  fenestra  ovalis  vibrating,  —  but 
very  much  less  forcibly  than  through  the  external  opening,  in  its 
healthful  condition. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  293 

bule,    or  second  room.     Lower   down,  but  a  few  lines 
from  this,  is  the  second  little  parchment  head,  called 

FENESTRA    ROTUNDA. 

This   is  a  round  window;  were  it  possible  to    tear  it 
away,  and  creep  through  the  frame,  the  traveller  would 
enter  into  one  of  the  canals  of  the  cochlea. 
FIG.  4. 


Explanation  of  Figure  4. 
In  this  diagram,  the  labyrinth  and  little  bones  of  the  ear,  are 

magnified  exceedingly.     This  is  to  show  the  manner  in  which  they 

are  connected,  and  the  order  in  which  they  are  placed. 

a  to  e  —  The  malleus,  about  to  be  described  ;  a  a  long  process  ;  b, 
a  shorter  one;  c,  the  handle,  attached  to  the  drum  head;  d,  the 
neck;  and  e  the  head  of  the  malleus,  like  a  mallet. 

/to  i —  The  inchus  ;  f  its  body ;  g  its  short  leg  ;  i  the  point  united 
to  the  stapes. 

k  to  n  —  The  stapes  ;  k  its  small  head, »  the  anterior  leg,  n  the  ba- 
sis connected  with  the  membrane  which  closes  the  fenestra  ovali^ 

o  to  m  —  The  labyrinth ;  o-r,  the  first  turn  of  the  cochlea;  s  t  u  v, 
the  second ;  w  x,  the  half  or  third  turn  ;  y  the  foramen  rotundum 
or  round  window  ;  zz,  the  vestibuluin  ;  A  B  C  D,  superior  semi- 
circular canals,  A  the  ampulla;  BC,  its  curvature  ;  D,  its  union 
with  the  inferior  or  posterior  cdnal ;  E  F  G  H,  inferior  canal ;  E, 
its  ampulla ;  F  G  H,  its  curious  curve  and  its  junction  with  the 
first;  1KLM,  the  exterior  canal;  I,  the  ampulla;  KL,  the 
direction  of  its  curve;  M,  its  termination  in  the  vestibule. 
VOL.  i.—  NO.  xir.  2G 


294  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


FIG.  5. 


Explanation  of  Figure  5. 

In  this,  the  bony  case  of  the  labyrinth,  has  had  one  half  cut 

away  to  exhibit  the  interior. 

a  to  I  —  The  upper  part  of  the  cochlea;  aa,  the  thickness  of  its 
external  shell  in  a  foetus  of  eight  months  ;  bed,  the  lamina  spira- 
lis;  be,  scala  vestibuli ;  efghi,  the  scala  tympani.  Here  is  seen 
the  bony  lamina  spiralis ;  b  its  origin  ;  d  its  termination  in  a  little 
hook,  termed  hamulus  :  k  the  opening  of  the  infnndibulum,  where 
the  scalae  communicate ;  I  the  opening  of  the  aqueduct,  or  drain 
ol  the  fluids  from  the  cochlea. 

m  tog  —  The  under  half  of  the  vestibulum  ;  m  the  thickness  of  its 
case  in  the  foetus  ;  n  the  fovea  or  round  pit ;  o  an  oval  pit ;  p  a 
ridge  between  them  ;  q  opening  of  the  aquseductus  vestibuli. 

r,g,lc,l  —  The  canals  divided ;  r  the  thickness  of  their  case  in 
the  infant;  g  the  posterior;  /  exterior  semicircular  canal ;  1  open- 
ing of  the  big  end  of  the  posterior  canal ;  2  opening  of  the  large 
end  of  the  superior ;  3  the  opening  common  to  their  united  tubes ; 

£  4  the  larger  end;  5  the  contracted  opening  of  the  external  canal. 

OSSICULA    AUDITUS. 

Perhaps  there  is  no  insulated  portion  of  an  animal, 
that  more  clearly  and  satisfactorily  evinces  superhuman 
design,  than  the  figure  and  articulations  of  the  four  ear 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


295 


bones,  which  we  shall  now  endeavor  to  describe.  The 
tecimical  phrase,  ossicula  auditus,  in  the  Latin  language, 
implies  little  bones  of  the  ear.  They  are  by  far  the  small- 
est in  the  body.  The  first,  in  the  order  of  their  distribu- 
tion is  the  malltus  or  mallet,  —  having  a  faint  resemblance 
to  that  instrument,  inasmuch  as  there  is  a  long  handle 
joined  to  a  round  knob.  Secondly,  the  inchus,  from  its 
resemblance  to  an  ovil  :  —  os  orbicularc  or  round  bone, 
the  least  in  size  that  has  ever  been  discovered  or  probably 
exists  in  any  terrestial  creature,  —  being  in  man  consider- 
ably smaller  than  the  smallest  mustard  seed.  And  lastly, 
the  stapes  —  or  stirrup,  almost  a  miniature  facsimile  of  a 
saddle  stirrup.  —  Birds  have  but  two  of  these,  —  of  which 
the  malleus  is  most  developed.  Turtles,  of  which  I  have 
a  specimen,  have  but  one,  the  malleus  ;  and  reptiles,  as 
far  as  personal  dissection  warrants,  have  but  two.  In 
these  classes,  there  is  a  departure  in  form,  from  those  we 
are  contemplating  in  our  own  species. 
Explanation  of  Fig.  6.  FIG.  6. 

There  are  present- 
ed here,  a  magnified 
view  of  the  ear  bones. 
The  os  orbicular  e,  or 
round  bone,  is  not 
represented,  being 
considered  by  some 
anatomists  as  only 
an  appendage  of  the 
malleus. 

The  malleus  known 
by  its  long  arms :  a, 
b,  c,  d,  e,  mark  the 
same  points  as  in 
Figure  4.  The  in- 
chus,  resembling  a 
molar  tooth,  having 
shorter  arms,  is  in  the  same  position  as  in  Figure  4,  the  letters  have 
the  same  reference.  The  star  points  out  the  articulating  surface 
for  the  malleus. 

Any  person,  from  the  foregoing  remarks,  can  recognise  the  stapes, 
by  its  shape  —  a 6  its  head;  c  the  neck;  d  anterior  erus;  e  the 
second;  /the  oasis. 

The  fourth  drawing  represents  another  view  of  the  stapes,  seen 
from  above  —  a  its  cartilage ;  6  anterior;  c  posterior;  d  the  basis. 


296 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


As  these  bones  are  placed  in  the  drum  barrel,  ^>ne 
joined  to  the  extremity  of  the  other,  they  make  a  Com- 
pound lever,  —  the  object  of  which  is,  to  have  the  freest 
and  longest  extent  of  motion,  in  a  little  space,  —  unlike  the 
muster  drum,  which  is  continually  referred  toon  account 
of  familiar  illustration,  the  sticks  of  this  are  fixed  on  the 
inside,  —  and'  though  no  hands  are  there  to  beat  them  on 
the  head,  they  are  connected  to  little  cords,  which  jerk 
them  down  with  a  sort  of  conscious  independence,  when- 
ever there  is  the  least  noise  abroad,  to  give  the  brain 
intelligence  as  it  were  of  what  is  going  on  without.  (4) 
Explanation  of  Figure  7.  FIG.  7. 


In  this  drawing,  the  little  bones  are  represented 
of  their  natural  size. 


There  is  some  resemblance  in  the  motion  to  be  effected 
by  this  chain  of  bones,  to  the  up  and  down  motion  of  the 
hand  at  the  extremity  of  the  arm,  viz.  —  carrying  one 
end  of  the  lever  through  considerable  space,  while  the 
other,  to  which  the  power  is  applied,  lias  no  perceptible 
motion. 

(4)  There  are  some  diseases,  familiar  to  medical  gentlemen, 
beside  local  affections  of  the  ear,  which  fix  upon  the  bones,  particu- 
larly about  the  face.  Under  such  circumstances,  a  sanious  dis- 
charge washes  these  little  bones  entirely  away  —  nothing  is  mere 
certain,  than  this  fact,  that  the  three  first  bones  may  be  corroded 
and  floated  from  their  connexions  —  indeed,  extracted  with  forceps, 
and  the  patient  hears,  to  all  intents  and  purposes,  nearly  if  not  quite 
as  well  as  he  did  before.  Thus  the  membrane,  (drum  head)  and 
three  out  of  four  bones  are  unnecessary,  it  seems,  in  the  auditory 
apparatus  of  man.  Stripped  thus.it  fulls  before  the  frog's — being 
deficient  in  an  external  covering  or  vibrating  membrane.  The 
current  or  vibrations,  in  this  case,  act  directly  on  the  foot  piece  of 
the  stapes — which  is  broad  enough  to  offer  a  resistance  to  the 
sonorous  column.  Being  connected  with  the  membrane  of  the 
fenestra  ovalis,  it  produces  a  motion  in  it,  and  that  is  propagated  (o 
the  fluid  beyond,  and  thus  the  nerve  becomes  agitated.  If  the 
stapes  could  be  detached  without  rupturing  the  membrane  of  tho 
fenestra  ovalis,  then  hearing  could  be  effected  independent  of  the 
little  bones.  Their  use  is  merely  to  strengthen  the  vibrations 
within,  just  in  the  proportion  that  they  have  a  tendency  to  become 
faint,  as  the  distance  increases  whence  they  had  their  origin. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  297 

Small  as  the  ossicula  auditus  are,  the  first  and  last 
of  the  series  have  muscles,  called  tensors,  laxators,  &c, 
which  are  susceptible  of  demonstration.  Rough  points 
and  projections  on  the  inside  of  the  tympanum,  give  at- 
tachij|ent  both  to  the  muscles  and  the  bones  themselves. 
Even  these  minute  points,  the  old  anatomists  have 
belabored  with  what  they  supposed  significant  names. 
One  end  of  the  malleus,  the  handle,  is  connected  with 
the  inside  of  the  membrana  tympani ;  the  other  is  fitted 
into  a  socket  of  the  inchus  —  and  that  articulated  with  the 
orbiculare  or  round  bone, —  which  stands  as  a  medium 
of  connexion  between  the  stapes  or  stirrup. 

Now  such  is  the  mechanical  adaptation  of  one  of  these 
bones  to  the  other,  that  if  the  extreme  point  of  the  handle 
of  the  malleus  which,  as  befor*  remarked,  is  joined  to 
the  membrane,  be  moved  the  millionth  or  ten  millionth 
part  of  an  inch,7  by  the  vibrations  of  the  drum  head,  it 
will  so  operate  on  the  inchus  and  then  on  the  stapes, 
through  the  intervention  of  the  orbiculare,  that  the  last 
bone,  will  move  through  treble  the  space,  by  a  single 
sonorous  pulsation  of  the  malleus,  in  the  same  period  of 
time.  In  fact,  the  stirrup,  in  plain  language,  is  exactly 
fitted  into  the  oval  window,  like  the  box  of  a  pump,  so 
that  a  motion  given  to  the  handle  of  the  malleus,  operates 
on  the  chain,  to  effect  the  stapes,  that  it  may  work  back- 
ward and  forward,  with  the  same  motion  and  on  the  same 
principle  of  the  working  of  the  piston  of  a  syringe.  To 
hear,  it  is  necessary  that  the  stapes,  attached  to  the 
parchment  window,  should  move  to  and  fro,  for  a  reason 
hereafter  to  be  explained,  or  no  sensation  can  be  convey 
ed  by  the  acoustic  nerve  to  the  brain. 

Gentlemen  curious  in  these  inquiries,  can  readily  pick 
out  the  ossicula  auditis  from  the  dry  skulls  of  horses, 
sheep,  dogs  and  cats.  There  is  a  slight  variation  however 
in  form,  and  ultimately,  in  burrowing  animals,  a  wide 
departure  in  configuration  from  those  in  man. 

VESTIBULE. 

This  word,  implies  a  porch  or  entry,  —  being  an  in- 
termediate apartment  between  the  tympanum  and  coch- 
lea ;  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is  now  received,  it  is  a 

VOL.  i. —  NO.   xn.         26* 


298  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

hall  or  porch  of  the  edifice  beyond, — from  which  doors 
are  opening  into  various  winding  passages.  Its  length 
and  diameter  are  not  far  from  a  grain  of  wheat, — as  in  a 
preceding  paragraph,  if  we  suppose  an  individual  has 
torn  away  the  stapes  from  the  little  drum  head,  str^fched 
across  the  oval  window,  and  then  cut  away  the  latter,  to 
wend  his  way  into  the  vestibule,  he  will  find  it  a  long, 
but  narrow  room.  (5) 

On  one  side  he  will  discover  three  holes,  and  on  the 
opposite,  only  two,  which  are  the  openings  or  communi- 
cation of  the  semicircular  canals,  with  the  vestibule. 
Within  this  vestibule,  are  two  sacs,  water  tight,  contain- 
ing a  clear  aqueous  fluid.  Though  there  is  no  commu- 
nication between  the  sacs,  the  quality  of  the  fluids 
distending  them,  is  alil$ — one  is  considerably  larger 
than  the  other,  and  both  together,  would  not  equal  in 
bulk,  two  good  sized  pin-heads.  The  one  of  the  greatest 
magnitude,  is  called  the  alvcus  communis  or  the  union  of 
rivers  —  from  the  circumstance  that  the  canals  were 
thought  by  the  old  anatomists  to  resemble  streams  of 
water,  having  a  free  communication  with  the  water  in 
the  reservoir.  Saculus  Cochlea,  the  lesser  one,  though 
separated  from  the  other  by  the  thickness  of  its  own  and 
the  other's  walls,  is  eked  out  into  a  long  gyrating  tube, 
that  traverses  the  cochlea. 

This  large  sac,  alveus  communis,  is  the  elementary  one 
found  in  polipi  —  and  it  is  this  that  is  built  upon  from 
one  species  to  another,  till  the  complicated  machinery  of 
the  human  ear,  on  dissection,  displays  it,  as  the  corner 
stone  of  the  sense  of  hearing  from  worms,  to  the  perfect 
musical  ear  of  man. 

(5)  If,  by  any  circumstance,  the  membrane  of  the  oval  windov) 
or  Jenestra  avails,  be  ruptured,  the  fluid  of  the  labyrinth  will  cer- 
tainly escape.  This  constitutes  incurable  deafness.  No  operation, 
no  prescription  can  avail,  as,  in  the  constitution  of  things,  the 
acoustic  nerve  cannot  be  acted  upon  in  any  other  way,  than  that 
through  the  agitation  of  the  fluid  which  surrounds  it.  Dr  Darwin 
was  of  an  opinion  that  if  a  deaf  person  dreamed  of  hearing,  the  in- 
ternal parts,  essential  to  the  function,  were  unimpaired.  The  same 
remark  is  applicable  to  the  blind.  I  have  invariably  found  that 
the  incurably  deaf  as  well  as  incurably  blind,  never  ;  dream  of 
hearing  or  seeing.  This  clearly  shows  a  destruction  of  the  sense, 
inasmuch  as  the  imagination  cannot  rouse  a  single  vestige  of  their 
former  activity. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  299 

Besides  the  sacs  themselves,  the  porch  is  lined  with  a 
membrane  of  exquisite  texture,  in  which  is  conducted 
the  blood  vessels  that  administer  the  blood  to  the  contained 
saculi,  and  also  secrete  their  contained  fluid,  aqua 
labyrintha  or  water  of  the  labyrinth,  further  to  be  com- 
mented upon. 

SEMICIRCULAR    CANALS. 

These  are  properly  a  prolongation  of  the  vestibule  — 
the  design  evidently  being  to  furnish  surface  for  expand- 
ing the  auditory  nerve,  without  carrying  it  onward 
towards  organs  that  would  be  affected  by  their  presence. 
No  way  could  be  devised,  possibly,  more  strictly  eco- 
nomical, than  to  have  a  circular  or  semicircular  canal, — 
curving  in  a  little  space,  as  in  a  very  small  solid  bit  of 
bone.  Precisely  on  this  plan,  are  these  canals  —  they 
are  three  in  number.  Let  it  be  remembered  in  this 
place,  that  the  tympanum,  including  the  vestibule,  little 
bones  and  semicircular  canals,  exclusively  make  up  the 
ear  of  fishes,  and  reptiles  —  neither  of  these  tribes  have 
an  external  ear,  nor  the  cochlea,  which  still  remains  to 
be  elucidated. 

So  much  is  necessary  to  the  true  perception  of  simple 
sounds  :  the  cartilaginous  fishes,  (sharks,  eels,  &c,)  have 
them,  and  are  therefore  capable  of  judging  of  the  di- 
rection and  condition  of  different  sounds.  The  Chinese 
drive  fish  from  the  crevices  of  rocks  to  the  angling 
ground,  by  beating  a  gong.  Pike  and  carp,  reared  in 
artificially  stocked  ponds,  both  in  Poland  and  France, 
have  been  taught  to  come  to  a  particular  spot  or  border, 
to  feed,  at  the  ringing  of  a  bell.  Serpents,  abundant 
evidence  substantiates,  are  exceedingly  excited  by  the 
lively  strains  of  music  —  coiling  themselves  into  a  variety 
of  folds,  and  giving  a  tremulous  vibration  to  the  tail, 
which  long  experience  proves  to  be  the  result  of  a  plea- 
surable sensation,  and  not  one  of  displeasure,  rage  or 
pain.  Egypt,  of  all  countries  on  the  globe,  is  the  paradise 
of  serpent  charmers,  who  never  fail  to  astonish  Europeans 
by  their  tact  in  discovering  the  true  characters  and  in- 
stinctive propensities  of  the  individuals  constituting 
their  serpentine  exhibitions. 


300  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

Two  of  these  canals,  as  they  wind  towards  the  side  of 
the  vestibule,  coalesce  —  and  when  they  perforate  the 
wall,  have  only  one  orifice  in  common.  The  third 
enters  alone,  and  this  explains  the  two  holes  seen  on  one 
side  of  the  vestibule ;  on  the  opposite  side  are  three 
holes,  being  the  orifices  of  the  same  three  canals,  open- 
ing singly.  When  the  semi-circular  canals  are  closely 
examined,  they  are  observed  to  be  larger  at  one  ex- 
tremity, near  the  walls  of  the  vestibule,  than  at  the  other, 
the  bulbs  or  bulges  are  termed  ampullulcB  or  bottle 
shaped.  A  crook-neck  squash  is  an  exact,  though 
greatly  magnified  representation  of  any  one  of  the  semi- 
circular canals.  The  diameter  of  the  circle  of  which 
they  are  a  little  more  than  two  thirds  of  a  segment,  varies 
but  little  from  one  quarter  of  an  inch  in  man  ;  and  the 
calibre  of  the  canals  themselves  will  scarcely  admit  the 
introduction  of  a  fine  bristle.  A  probable  reason  for  the 
swelling  out  of  the  ampullulse  will  be  given  when  dis- 
coursing particularly  on  the  nerve. 
FIG.  8. 


Explanation  of  Figure  8. 

In  this  enlarged  diagram    of  the  labyrinth   which  is  laid  open, 
the  soft  parts  are  seen.     Some  of  my  readers,  particularly  young 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  301 

gentlemen  pursuing  medical  studies,  will  derive   the  most  profit 

from  this  pi  an. 

a  to  c—  The  lamina  spiralis  viewed  from  above.     The  distribution 

of  the  nerve  will  not  be  easily  distinguished  I  fear  —  a  a  a,  the 

first  turn  ;  bb,  second  turn  ;  cdc,  the  third  turn  of  the  lamina  ; 

d  e,  where  the  scalas  communicate. 

Comparctti  has  described,  so  says  Mr  Abernethy,  in  Rees'    Cy- 
to consist  of  four  different  substances,  or  zones  : 


omparctt  as  escre, 
clopaedia,  the  lamina  to  consis 
1,  the  bony  zone  ;  2,  coriace 


y   zone  ;  2,  coriaceus;  3,  vesicula;  4,  the   membraneous 
zone. 
f,  sacculus  sphericus  ;  g,  space  between  that  and  the  alveus  coin- 

munis;  h,  alveus  communis  ;  1  k  i3,  posterior  canal  ;  1  i,  its  am- 

pulla; A-,  the  nerve  expanded  over  it;  2Zwi,  the  superior  canal; 

/,  the  ampullula?  ;  4  n  5,  the  exterior  canal,  communicating  at  both 

ends  with  the  alveus  communis. 

Within  these  bony  tubes,  are  membraneous  ones,  — 
prolongations  of  the  sacs  found  in  the  vestibule  ;  but 
they  are  not  in  contact  with  the  walls  :  on  the  contrary,  they 
are  kept  from  them  by  the  interposition  of  a  fluid,  whose 
equal  pressure  keeps  them  exactly  in  the  centre.  Further 
to  show  the  exceedingly  minute  structure  of  this  accu- 
rately operating  instrument,  it  is  necessary  to  remember 
that  the  membraneous  tube,  being  already  a  wheel  within 
a  wheel,  is  also  ,  distended  with  a  transparent  watery 
liquor.  Still  smaller  canals,  running  through  the  petrous 
portion  of  the  temporal  bone,  in  which  the  internal  ear 
is  located,  pour  in  and  discharge  the  old  fluid,  as  au  un- 
ceasing process. 

COCHLEA. 

The  third  and  last  anatomical  division  of  the  internal 
ear,  is  the  cochlea,  or  snail  shell.  Recollecting  how 
the  canal  of  a  snail  shell  winds  about  a  central  pillar, 
will  enable  the  reader  to  understand  the  text.  In  the 
snail  shell  of  the  ear,  however,  there  are  two  canals,  side 
by  side,  which  wind  twice  and  a  half  round  a  central 
pillar,  —  which  is  a  hollow  pillar  and  termed  modiolus. 
At  the  apex,  the  two  canals  open  in  one  common  cavity, 
but  a  thin  slip  of  bone  caps  over  both  openings  as  well  as 
over  the  top  of  the  hollow  end  of  the  pillar,  like  a  parasol. 
This  is  the  cupola,  in  technical  language.  The  upper 
end  of  the  hollow  pillar  is  broad,  but  becoming  narrower, 
hence  it  is  denominated  the  inj'undibulum  or  tunnel 
shaped  extremity.  Most  writers  on  this  subject  describe 
two  pillars,  as  constituting  the  centre,  but  it  is  unneces^ 


302  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 

sary  minutiae.  After  leaving  the  inner  extremity  of  the 
vestibule,  commences  one  canal  of  the  cochlea,  which 
becomes  smaller  and  smaller,  till  it  terminates  under  the 
cupola.  Now,  supposing  the  reader  were  travelling  in 
this  canal,  he  could  step  from  the  termination  of  the  one, 
we  are  describing  over  the  broad  opening  of  the  modiolus, 
shaded  above  by  the  cupola,  into  the  mouth  of  the  second 
canal.  By  following  its  turns,  increasing  in  diameter,  as 
he  proceeds,  till  he  has  gone  twice  and  a  half  round  the 
modiolus,  he  would  arrive  at  the  fenestra  rotunda  or 
round  window.  This  being  like  parchment,  semi-trans- 
parent, he  could  look  into  the  tympanum  where  the  little 
bones  are  lodged. 

Thus  it  is,  that  one  canal  is  in  reality  a  prolongation 
of  the  vestibule,  and  the  other  opens  into  the  tympanum. 
A  fluid  fills  the  canals,  which  is  prevented  from  escaping 
by  the  oval  window,  in  the  vestibule,  in  one  direction, 
and  by  the  round  one  at  the  other.  In  the  centre  of  this 
liquor,  floating,  are  the  finely  organized  threads  of  the 
acoustic  nerve. 

Those  animals  having  the  power  of  combining  sounds 
to  produce  song,  have  a  cochlea,  and  generally,  a  corres- 
ponding vocal  apparatus.  Birds,  particularly,  have  a 
cochlea,  but  it  consists  only  of  two  tapering  tubes,  united 
at  one  extremity,  but  diverging  at  the  other,  as  in  man. 
A  musical  ear  was  once  thought  by  physiologists,  to  de- 
pend exclusively  on  a  cochlea  ;  but  common  sense 
teaches  us,  and  the  fact  is  notorious,  that  singers  as  well 
as  those  who  cannot  sing,  have  ears  constructed  precisely 
alike  ;  and  therefore,  the  whole  mystery  depends  on  the 
peculiar  development  of  the  brain. 

Explanation  of  Figure  9.  FIG.  9. 

Let  it  be  remembered  by  the  reader,  that  that  part 
of  the  last  as  well  as  the  following  diagram,  which  js| 
has  a  sort  of  shell  like   turn,  is  denominated  the 
cochlea. 

The  object  in  this  drawing,  is  to  show  the  soft 
contents  of  the  labyrinth,  of   their  natural  size  and 
in  their  natural  situation.    All  the  rock  like  portions 
of  the  temporal  bone  have  been  broken  away. 
aa,  the  spiral  plate  of  the   cochlea;  b  the  round  sac,  or  sac  of  the 

cochlea ;  c  alveus  communis  ;  g  the   posterior  ;  k  the  superior, 

and  I  exterior  semicircular  canal. 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 
THE    AUDITORY    NERVE. 

There  is  no  part  of  the  intricate  organ  we  have  been 
explaining,  more  absolutely  difficult  to  display  and  to  fully 
understand,  in  all  its  relations,  than  the  nerve  of  hearing, 
and  we  shall  therefore  avoid  all  laborious  anatomical  des- 
criptions, and  merely  generalize.  All  the  nerves  origina- 
ting in  the  brain,  are  reckoned  from  before,  backward, 
that  is,  beginning  with  olfactories,  at  the  nose,  and 
ending  with  the  tongue,  or  lingtials. 

In  this  order,  the  auditory  is  the  seventh,  —  a  pair 
precisely  alike  on  the  two  sides  of  the  brain;  not  much 
larger  than  cotton  sewing  threads  ;  it  enters  the  cochlea 
first  through  a  sieve  like  orifice,  on  one  side  of  a  bone 
that  projects  from  the  inside  of  the  skull  towards  the 
brain.  This  depression  where  the  nerve  enters,  to  travel 
outward,  towards  the  external  ear,  is  the  meatus  audito- 
rius  interims.  It  assumes  a  variety  of  shapes  in  distribu- 
ting itself  in  the  various  tubes,  sacs,  canals  and  pits  we 
have  been  exhibiting.  At  some  points,  many  delicate 
threads  are  discoverable,  side  by  side :  at  others,  fibres 
are  seen  floating  in  the  surrounding  fluid,  from  the  main 
trunk :  at  others,  the  nerves  assumes  the  form  of  a  flocu- 
lent  paste,  and  at  others,  a  woolly  texture.  The  whole, 
distributed  thus  elaborately,  constitutes  the  nerve  of 
hearing.  The  sense  of  hearing  is  not  confined,  in  a 
healthful  condition  of  the  organ,  to  any  one  particular 
part  or  point :  the  sensation  is  perceived  in  the  whole  at 
the  same  instant  of  time.  The  question  now  may  arise, 
why  was  it  necessary  to  construct  such  an  intricate 
machine,  if  one  part  of  it  has  not  a  higher  office  to  sus- 
tain than  another  ? 

Economy  was  the  object :  —  to  pack  as  much  as  possi- 
ble in  the  smallest  space,  is  observable  in  all  animal 
mechanism.  No  other  kind  of  arrangement  of  cells  in 
the  small  block  of  bone  in  which  these  are  found,  would 
or  could  have  afforded  so  much  surface  to  spread  out 
such  an  extent  of  nerve.  This  then  is  the  probable  rea- 
son for  semi-circular  canals,  the  cochlea  and  their  ap- 
pendages. 


304  ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


MUSICAL    EAR. 

No  question  oftener  arises  amongst  physiologists,  on 
surveying  the  auditory  apparatus,  than  this,  viz.  —  why 
has  one  person  the  ear  for  music,  when  another,  whose 
internal  organ  is  as  beautifully  and  nicely  constructed, 
is  totally  unable  to  appreciate  harmonious  sounds  ?  The 
difficulty,  probably  js  in  the  peculiar  development  of 
some  portion  of  the  brain,  and  therefore  does  not  arise  in 
consequence  of  a  defect  in  the  original  conformation  of 
the  ear.  It  obviously  requires  as  delicate  auricular  per- 
ception to  appreciate,  understand  and  imitate  articulate 
sounds,  as  it  does  to  sing  in  concert.  It  is  by  no  means 
uncommon  for  an  individual  to  possess  the  faculty  of  ap- 
preciating and  cultivating,  the  highest  departments  of 
instrumental  music,  and  at  the  same  time  be  wholly 
unable  to  sing.  This  is  entirely  owing  to  a  defective 
development  of  the  vocal  organs.  A  perfect  organiza- 
tion of  both,  in  the  same  individual,  united  to  that  in- 
scrutable development  of  brain  which  gives  the  taste  for 
music,  constitutes  the  most  gifted  performer,  and  such 
as  Handel,  Mozart,  Beethhoven,  Mad.  Catalina,  Garcia, 
the  wonderful  Paganini,  and  a  few  others  have  exhibited 
to  the  highest  human  perfection.  Another  circumstance, 
worth  remembering,  in  relation  to  the  musical  ear,  is  the 
following :  some  persons  have  the  ear  as  well  as  the 
taste  for  music,  and  yet  find  it  impossible  to  accompany 
others  in  a  performance.  This  arises,  probably,  in  most 
cases,  in  consequence  of  a  non-agreement  in  the  tension 
of  the  drum  heads  of  the  two  ears,  or  a  want  of  corres- 
pondence in  the  calibre  of  the  internal  tubes  ;  hence  one 
ear  perceives  sounds  to  be  half  a  tone  above  or  below  the 
other  —  the  same  occurs  in  respect  to  the  focal  distance, 
oftentimes,  of  the  eyes.  Time  rarely  corrects  the  former, 
though  in  the  latter  it  finally  modifies  the  aberration.  (7 ) 

(7)  Philosophers  of  antiquity  were  more  conversant  with  the  doc- 
trine of  sounds,  than  the  moderns:  the  remarkable  cavern,  hewn 
in  a  solid  rock  by  a  celebrated  tyrant,  and  called  Dionysius'  ear,  is 
said  to  have  been  an  exact  model  of  the  windings  of  the  human 
ear.  Vitruvius  gives  an  interesting  and  particular  account  of  the 
manner  iu  which  the  Greeks  contrived  to  augment  the  compass  of 
the  voice  in  theatres,  by  placing  large  metal  vases  in  different  \nrts 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  305 


RINGING    OF  THE    EARS. 

A  ringing  noise  in  the  ear  is  an  indication  of  a  dis- 
eased state  of  the  nerve  ;  generally,  it  arises  from  some 
slight  inflammation.  The  beating  of  adjacent  arteries, 
in  consequence  of  local  inflammation  of  the  throat,  may 
excite  the  nerve,  —  which  being  incapable  of  transmit- 
ting any  sensation  but  that  of  sound,  the  ringing  is  an 
imperfect  sen-ation.  The  eye,  when  the  optic  nerve  is 
encroached  upon  by  inflammation  of  surrounding  parts, 
or  the  pressure  of  a  growing  tumor,  transmits  the  sensa- 
tion of  light,  though  the  individual  be  in  total  darkness; 
affections  of  the  brain  itself  may  remotely  excite  a  mor- 
bid action  in  many  or  all  the  nerves  of  sense.  Hence, 
persons  dying  of  acute  inflammatory  diseases,  complain 
of  hearing  loud  and  strange  noises,  although  the  apart- 
ment is  perfectly  still. 


Perhaps  the  ear-ache,  (ostalgia)  is  as  difficult  to  ex- 
plain as  to  remedy.  Very  many  individuals  are  subject 
to  excruciating  pain  in  the  internal  ear,  on  taking  the 
slightest  cold  or  from  exposing  themselves  to  a  humid 
atmosphere  ;  and  others  seem  to  inherit  the  disease, 
which  no  application  can  remove.  A  peculiar  irritability 
of  the  nerve  that  crosses  the  drum-head,  (corda  ti/mpani) 
may  be  one  cause,  —  the  vascular  covering  of  which, 
suffering  from  a  chronic  inflammation,  compresses  the 
nerve  and  thus  produces  almost  intolerable  agony.  De- 
fending the  external  opening  with  cotton  wool,  or  lint, 
is  a  common  and  indeed,  rational  defence  ;  but  the  in- 
troduction of  oils,  spirits  and  the  like,  is  often  attended 
with  pernicious  consequences.  Generally  such  cases 
end  in  deafness.  Nature,  to  save  the  rest  of  the  machine 
from  becoming  disordered,  by  its  sympathy  with  the 
diseased  member,  finally  destroys  it,  as  firemen  demolish 

of  those  edifices.     Mr  Curtis,  an  aurist,  in  England,  has  recently 
invented  a  chair,  with  certain  pipes  and  tambours,  that  enables  the 
individual  seated  in  it  to  hear,  distinctly,  a  suppressed  conversation, 
which  may  be  carried  on  in  any  part  of  the  room. 
VOL.    I. NO.    XII.  27 


306 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM. 


contiguous  buildings,  to  save   a  town,  when  they  can  no 
longer  master  a  threatening  conflagration.  (7) 

PARTIAL  DEAFNESS,  FROM  A  COLD. 

Probably,  in  a  majority  of  cases,  partial  deafness  arises 
from  a  slight  inflammation  of  the  tube  opening  behind 
the  palate.  In  consequence  of  this,  the  balance  between 
the  air  in  the  tympanum  and  mouth,  is  destroyed,  and 
the  regular  vibratory  function  of  the  membrane  is  alter- 
ed. A  deafness  in  one  ear  generally  depends  on  this 
cause.  Tumors  in  the  throat,  and  polipi  of  the  nose, 
by  pressure  on  the  mouth  of  the  eustachian  tube,  where 
it  opens  back  of  the  soft  palatine  arch,  may  each  of 
them  be  the  cause  of  deafness.  Deafness  in  fevers  is 
an  excellent  symptom,  and  offers  encouragement  in  the 
worst  cases,  because  it  is  an  evidence  of  a  diminution  of 
the  morbid  condition  of  the  brain. 

FIG.  10. 


Explanations  to  Figure  10. 
An  enlarged  ivew  of  the  labyrinth  laid  open. 

a>   5f  C) the  cochlea.     To  exhibit  the  zona  mollis  ;  the  outside 

or  bony  case  removed. 

(!)  Painful  affections  of  the  ear  may  be  induced  from  habitually 
picking  the  ears,  —  a  very  pernicious  practice.  In  India,  where  a 
cla*s  of  men  particularly  follow  the  profession  of  cleansing  ears,  cut- 


ANIMAL    MECHANISM.  307 

d,  e,  y,  —  the  vestibulura. 

g,  to  q,  —  the  semicircular  canals. 

gt  h,  i,  — the  posterior  ;  k,  I,  m,  the  superior;  o,  p,  q,  the  exte- 
rior canal. 

1,  2,  3 —  the  lamina  spiralis,  seen  on  itg  under  surface;  3,  the  two 
sacs  so  often  mentioned  in  this  .tract,  in  the  vestibule,  which, 
viewed  in  this  plan,  look  like  one. 

t,  u,  —  the  membranous  posterior  canal. 

v,  w,  x,  —  the  superior  membranous  canal,  uniting  with  the  last,  at 
x,  y,  z,  the  exterior  membranous  canal. 
Tliis  diagram  exhibits  the  distribution  of  the   acoustic  nerve  in 

the  labyrinth  ;  the  large  branch  goes  to  the  cochlea,  and  the  three 

others,  smaller,  to  the  vestibule,  and  three  semicircular  canals. 

PERMANENT    DEAFNESS. 

A  total  deafness  implies  a  destruction  of  the  organ  : 
but  I  apprehend  there  are  only  a  very  few  persons  in  this? 
condition.  Even  in  those  unfortunate  fellow-beings  who 
are  deaf  and  dumb,  the  faculty  of  hearing,  to  a  certain 
extent,  still  exists.  They  hear  the  report  of  a  cannon, 
or  heavy  thunder,  which  act  so  powerfully  on  the  body  as 
to  rouse  the  sleeping  energies  of  the  acoustic  nerve.  In 
fact,  the  tremor  is  communicated  by  being  propagated 
through  the  bones  of  the  head.  Fishes,  of  the  bony 
kind,  have  the  organ  of  hearing  acted  upon  in  the  same 
manner,  as  the  nerve  is  completely  cased  up  in  solid 
bone,  without  either  drum-head  or  external  openings. 
Many  years  ago,  in  the  course  of  a  visit  at  the  Hartford 
deaf  and  dumb  Asylum,  I  ascertained  many  of  the 
pupils  could  feel  sounds,  which  they  could  not  hear,  by 
holding  a  twine  between  the  teeth,  while  the  other  end 
was  tied  to  a  musical  instrument  at  considerable  dis- 
tance. One  young  gentlemen  assured  me  that  he  derived 
a  pleasurable  sensation  from  the  vibrations  of  the  strings 
of  a  piano.  It  is  my  firm  belief  that  many  persons  who 

ting  the  nails,  &c  —  though  in  that  .climate  <he  secretions  may  be 
fluid,  in  greater  abundance,  and  discharge  freely,  th.e  plucking  of  the 
hairs  and  frequent  introduction  of  scraping  instruments  render  the 
organ  irritable,  and  less  accurate  in  the  perception  of  sounds. 

Tumors,  ulcerations  and  other  troublesome  complaints  are 
brought  on  by  picking  them.  A  sudden  pressure  on  the  corda  tym- 
pani,  a  nerve  belonging  to  the  face,  which  crosses  the  drum-head, 
by  the  head  of  a  pin,  may  forever  after  render  it  liable  to  inflame 
on  the  slightest  exposure. 

Fluids  ought  not  to  be  poured  into  the  external  ear  to  drown  in- 
sects, aa  the  worst  consequences  may  ensue. 


$03  ANIMAL   MECHANISM. 

are  deaf  and  dumb,  might  readily  be  restored  by  a  punc- 
ture of  the  membran^,  even  in  advanced  life.  (9) 

CONCLUSION. 

None  of  the  organs  of  sense  are  more  complicated  or 
splendidly  constructed  than  the  one  under  consideration. 
The  will  has  it  but  slightly  under  its  control,  and  being 
unable  '  to  withdraw  itself  from  impressions,'  it  has 
the  curious  apparatus  of  little  bones  to  increase  or  dimin- 
ish the  intensity  of  impressions  on  the  nerve,  like  a 
regulator  between  the  external  agent  and  the  nervous 
tissues.  Judgment,  by  the  combined  assistance  of  the 
other  senses,  perfects  the  function  of  the  organ  —  and 
ideas,  without  number  are  constantly  ushered  into  being 
by  the  sense  of  hearing. 

By  this  sense,  music  is  a  never  failing  source  of  plea- 
sure, heightened  and  infinitely  modified,  according  to 
the  physical  development  of  the  ear,  and  the  discipline 
and  education  to  which  it  has  in  modern  times  been 
subjected.  '  The  causes  of  the  pleasure  resulting  from 
harmony  and  melody,  are  very  far  from  being  satisfac- 
torily explained,  notwithstanding  the  sagacious  conjec- 
tures and  repeated  attempts  of  the  most  able  metaphysi- 
cians, as  well  as  physiologists :  we  know  no  more  of 
them  than  we  do  of  the  causes  of  the  pleasures  and  pains 
of  all  the  other  senses.' 

(9)  Dr  Forster  of  Manchester,  England,  who  recently  ascended 
to  the  height  of  6000  feet  in  a  balloon,  in  company  with  Mr  Green, 
the  aeronaut,  remarked  that  the  pressure  on  the  membrane  of  the 
ear,  arising  from  the  rarefaction  of  the  atmosphere,  was  so  painful 
as  to  oblige  him  to  descend ;  sounds,  however  loud,  below,  soon 
became  inaudible  as  he  ascended.  Dr  Forster  suggests  that  an 
aerial  jaunt  into  the  clouds,  might  cure  some  kinds  of  deafness. 

BOSTON : 
PUBLISHED    BY    CARTER,   HENDEE    it.    BABCOCK, 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 


BOSTON       CLASSIC      PRESS I.      R.      BUTTS. 

',*  TERMS  —  24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  FIFTY 
NTS. 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER    XIII. 


SOUND. 


I.    VIBRATIONS    OF    SOUNDING    BODIES. 

EVERY  one  has  noticed  that,  in  many  cases,  where 
sound  is  produced,  there  is  a  trembling  or  vibration  of 
the  sounding  body.  This  is  evidently  the  case  when  a 
heavy  bell  is  struck,  or  the  large  strings  of  a  viol  are 
sounded.  In  some  other  cases,  as  in  the  flute  and  whis- 
tle, these  tremblings  are  less  obvious.  They  are  not 
however  less  real.  Sound  is,  in  all  cases,  produced  by 
vibrations  in  a  sounding  body,  occasioning  similar  vibra- 
tions in  the  air. 

Various  facts  will,  at  once,  occur  to  the  reader,  illus- 
trative of  this  principle. 

The  vibrations  of  a  large  bell,  or  of  a  viol  string,  as 
above  remarked,  are  visible. 

The  head  of  a  drum  is  thrown  into  a  state  of  vibration 
by  the  strokes  of  the  drumstick. 

If  a  tuning  fork,  when  sounding,  is  touched  to  the 
teeth,  the  vibrations  are  sensibly  felt. 

If  the  tuning  fork  or  a  bell  be  touched  with  the  finger, 
so  as  to  check  these  vibrations,  the  sound  is  instantly 
stopped . 

In  the  rctd  stops,  as  they  are  called,  of  an  organ,  the 
sounds  are  produced  by  the  vibrations  of  thin  slips  of 
metal,  fastene'd^t  one  end. 

If  a  large  glass  vessel,  partly  filled  with  water,  is  made 
to  sound  by  rubbjlig  the  edge  with  a  wet  finger,  the  vibra- 
tions produced  are  made  evident  by  peculiar  and  beauti- 
ful undulations  in  the  water.  If  the  upper  part  of  the 

VOL.  i.  — NO.  xin.         28 


310  SOUND. 


tumbler  is  held  by  the  hand,  so  as  to  prevent  vibrations, 
the  sound  will  be  prevented. 

Sound  may  be  produced  by  one  single  shock  or  con- 
cussion of  the  sounding  body,  in  which  case  the  vibrations 
continue  but  an  instant.  The  blow  of  a  hammer,  the 
crack  of  a  whip,  a  pistol  shot,  the  stroke  of  a  bell, 
when  the  hand  is  pressed  upon  the  outside  of  the  bell,  so 
as  to  prevent  a  continuance  of  the  sound  are  examples. 

If,  however,  these  vibrations  are  continued  for  some 
time  with  ^regularity,  a  continued  and  equable  sound  is 
produced,  Called  a  musical  sound  or  tone.  Arnott  illus- 
trates this  subject  in  the  following  manner.  'If  a  wheel 
with  teeth  be  made  to  turn  and  to  strike  a  piece  of  quill 
with  every  tooth,  it  will,  when  moved  slowly,  allow  every 
tooth  to  be  seen,  and  every  blow  to  be  separately  heard ; 
but  with  increasing  velocity,  the  eye  will  lose  sight  of  the 
teeth,  and  the  ear  will  at  last  hear  only  a  smooth  con- 
tinued sound,  called  a  tone,  of  which  the  character  will 
change  with  the  velocity  of  the  wheel.' 

In  like  manner,  the  vibrations  of  a  long  harp-string, 
while  it  is  very  slack,  are  separately  visible,  and  the 
pulses,  produced  by  it  in  the  air,  are  separately  audible ; 
but  as  it  is  gradually  tightened,  its  vibrations  quicken, 
and  the  eye  soon  sees  that  it  is  moving  only  by  a  broad 
shadowy  line;  the  distinct  sounds  which  the  ear  lately 
perceived,  run  together,  owing  to  the  shortness  of  inter- 
vals, and  are  felt  as  one  uniform,  continued  tone,  which 
constitutes  the  note  or  sound  proper  to  the  string.  It  is 
the  elasticity  of  such  a  string  which  causes  the  repetition 
of  the  percussions,  and  therefore  the  continuance  of  the 
sound.  Thus  the  string  having  been  pulled  at  its 
middle  to  one  side,  and  then  let  go,  its  elasticity  carries 
it  back  quickly  to  the  straight  position ;  but  by  the  time 
it  has  reached  this,  it  has  acquired  a  momentum  which, 
like  the  momentum  of  a  vibrating  pendulum,  carries  it 
nearly  as  far  beyond  the  middle  station  as  the  place  from 
whence  it  came.  It  has  to  return  therefore  from  this 
second  deviation,  by  its  elasticity,  in  the  same  way ;  but 
still  passing  the  middle  as  before,  it  has  again  to  return, 
and  thus  continues  vibrating  as  a  pendulum  does,  until 


SOUND  311 


the  resistance  of  the  air  and  friction  bring  it  gradually 
to  rest. 

A  large  vibration  of  any  one  string  occupies  very  nearly 
the  same  time  as  a  smaller,  because  the  more  the 
string  is  bent,  the  more  forcibly  it  is  pulled  back  again 
by  its  elasticity  ;  hence  the  uniformity  of  a  musical  tone. 

To  the  perfection  of  a  tone,  it  is  of  no  consequence  in 
what  way  the  pulses  are  produced,  provided  they  follow 
with  sufficient  regularity  ;  witness  the  pure  sound  pro- 
duced by  the  motion  of  a  fly's  wing^-  supposed  by  many 
to  be  the  voice  of  the  insect.  ThWclacking  of  a  corn- 
mill,  and  the  noise  of  a  stick,  pulled  along  a  grating,  are 
not  musical  only  because  the  pulses  follow  too  slowly. 

Where  a  continued  sound  is  produced  by  impulses 
which  do  not,  like  those  of  an  elastic  body,  follow  in  reg- 
ular succession,  the  effect  ceases  to  be  a  clear,  uniform 
sound  or  tone,  and  is  called  a  noite.  Such  is  the  sound 
of  a  saw  or  grindstone  ;  the  roar  of  waves,  breaking  on 
a  rocky  shore,  or  of  a  violent  wind  in  a  forest ;  the  roar 
and  crackling  of  houses,  or  of  a  wood  in  flames  ;  the  mixed 
voices  of  a  talking  multitude;  the  diversified  sounds  of  a 
great  city,  including  the  rattling  of  wheels,  the  clanking 
of  hammers,  the  voice  of  street  criers,  the  noises  of  man- 
ufactories, &c ;  which  rough  elements,  however,  at  last 
mingle  with  such  uniformity,  that  the  combined  result  is 
often  called  the  hum  of  men,  from  analogy  to  the  smooth 
mingling  miniature  sounds  which  constitute  the  hum  of 
a  bee-hive. 

II.    VIBRATIONS    IN    THE    AIR. 

The  vibrations  of  sounding  bodies  above  described  are 
communicated  to  the  air  around  them,  and  thence  to  the 
ear.  Without  the  air,  therefore,  although  the  bell  would  vi- 
brate if  struck,  the  vibrations  would  not  be  communicated 
to  us,  and  we  should  hear  no  sound.  That  these  vibrations 
are  thus  conveyed  through  the  air  is  evident  from  a  vari- 
ety of  facts  and  experiments.  The  following  is,  however, 
a  sufficient  illustration. 

If  two  bass-viols,  tuned  so  that  corresponding  strings 
in  each,  will  give  the  same  sound,  be  placed  in  two  rooms, 


312  SOUND. 

at  a  distance  from  each  other  of  ten  or  fifteen  feet,  and 
the  bow  be  drawn  across  a  string  of  one,  so  as  to  produce 
a  loud  sound,  the  corresponding  string  in  the  other  in- 
strument will  be  thrown  into  vibrations,  and  a  similar 
sound  will  proceed  from  it.  This  can  arise  from  no  other 
circumstance  than  that  the  vibrations  of  the  string,  across 
which  the  bow  is  drawn,  are  communicated  to  the  air, 
and  through  the  air  to  the  same  string  in  the  other  viol. 

These  vibratory  motions  in  the  air,  are  very  different 
in  their  nature  froi^progrcssivc  motions,  and  it  is  im- 
portant here  to  explam  them.  They  are  usually  illustrated 
by  the  undulations  of  water. 

If  a  piece  of  wood  is  lying  still,  on  the  surface  of  water, 
and  a  stone  be  thrown  beyond  it,  a  series  of  undulations 
are  produced,  which  recede  from  the  place  where  the 
stone  fell,  and  seem  to  be  a  motion  of  the  water  itself  to- 
wards the  shore.  This  is,  however,  not  the  fact.  The 
motion  seems  to  be  progressive,  but  is  really  only  vibra- 
tory. The  stone  falling  into  the  water,  produces  a  de- 
pression in  that  place,  the  surrounding  water  presses  in 
to  fill  it,  and  by  its  momentum  an  elevation  is  produced. 
The  water  thus  elevated  falls  by  its  weight,  and  produces 
an  elevated  ring  around  it.  This  by  its  descent  produces 
another  and  another,  larger  in  diameter,  and  nearer  the 
shore  ;  but  in  such  rapid  succession,  that  it  seems  as  if 
the  teave  first  produced,  itself  moiled  towards  the  shore. 
That  this  is  not  really  the  case  is  evident  from  this  fact  : 
If,  before  the  stone  was  thrown  in,  apiece  of  wood  had 
been  floating  on  the  water,  we  should  have  observed  that 
the  wood  would  approach  but  very  little,  if  at  all,  nearer 
the  shore.  It  would  rise  and  fall  with  each  successive 
circle,  but  still  make  no  visible  progress.  Now,  as  the 
wood  would  move  with  the  water,  if  there  was  really  a 
progressive  motion  of  the  latter,  we  can  safely  infer  that 
all  the  motion  of  the  water  is  simply  a  rising  and  falling, 
or  a  vibratory  motion,  not  a  progressive  one,  towards  the 
shore.  The  appearance  is  delusive. 

The  undulations  of  the  air  are  in  the  same  manner  vi- 
bratory, that  is  to  and  fro,  not  progressive.  This  may  be 
illustrated  by  the  annexed  diagram. 


SOUND. 


313 


Let  A  B  C  D,  represent 
the  strings  of  two  bass-viols, 

5 laced  fifteen  or  twenty  feet 
istant ;  o  x  y  z,  particles  of 
air  through  which  the  sound 
made  by  drawing  a  bow  over 
the  string  A  B,  of  the  first 
viol,  is  communicated  to  the 
string  C  D,  of  the  second 
viol.  When  the  string  A  B, 
is  put  in  motion  it  comes  in 
contact  with  the  particle  of 
air  o,  or  sufficiently  near  to 
give  it  an  impulse.  This 
particle  receives  an  impulse 
sufficient  to  carry  it  forward 
in  the  direction  of  the  dotted 
line  e,  from  thence  it  returns 
an  equal  distance  on  the  other  side  of  the  point  from  whence  it 
started. 

The  second  particle  of  air,  x  is  impelled  forward  in  a  direction 
towards  y,  by  the  first  particle  o,  and  the  same  with  all  the 
others  of' the  series.  The  sound  made  by  drawing  a  bow  over 
the  string  A  B,  of  the  first  viol,  is  thus  transmitted  through 
the  successive  particles  of  air,  and  at  length  reaches  the  string  C  D 
of  the  second  viol,  and  causes  it  to  sound.  Here  it  will  be  eviden 
that  there  is  no  progressive  motion  of  the  particles.  Each  one  moves 
slightly  and  then  returns  to  its  place.  It  probably  goes  back  farther 
than  to  its  first  place,  and  after  various  oscillations  comes  to  a  stale  of 
rest  in  its  original  position.  If,  however,  the  whole  mass  of  air 
moved  onwards,  it  would  be  wind  not  sound. 

That  sound  is  thus  conveyed  by  vibrations  of  the  air,  is 
evident  from  many  other  facts.  The  concussion  thus 
produced  is  sometimes  very  great.  A  discharge  of  artil- 
lery will  sometimes  break  windows.  The  thunder  has 
often  the  same  effect.  An  explosion  of  a  powder  mill 
produces  a  shock  in  the  air  for  many  miles,  though  un- 
doubtedly in  this  case  the  concussion  is  not  altogether 
produced  by  the  sound. 

It  follows  from  what  has  been  said  above,  that  without 
air  there  would  be  no  sound.  This  fact  has  been  proved 
by  many  experiments.  If  a  bell  be  placed  under  a  glass 
vessel  from  which  the  air  has  been  exhausted,  any  efforts 
to  produce  a  sound  by  striking  the  bell,  will  be  in  vain. 
A  faint  sound  may  sometimes  be  heard  ;  but  this  would 
not  be  the  case  if  the  air  could  be  completely  exhausted 
from  the  glass  vessel,  and  the  connexion  with  surround- 
VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xin.  28* 


314  SOUND. 

ing  solid  substances,  capable  of  conveying  sound,  could 
be  entirely  cut  off. 

This  experiment  has  been  tried  in  the  following  man- 
ner. Under  the  receiver  of  an  air  pump,  a  piece  of  clock 
work  was  placed,  to  produce  sound  in  a  bell,  which 
rested  upon  a  bag  stuffed  with  cotton  or  wool.  A  vacuum 
was  produced  by  working  the  pump,  and  then  by  means 
of  a  handle,  or  stem  which  went  through  the  top  of  the 
receiver,  the  clock  work  was  set  in  motion,  and  the 
"hammer  was  then  seen  to  strike  the  bell  continually,  but 
no  sound  was  heard.  Another  philosopher,  to  render 
this  experiment  still  more  decisive,  placed  the  bell  in  a 
first  receiver,  which  remained  full  of  air,  and  which  was 
covered  by  a  second  receiver,  so  disposed  that  a  vacuum 
might  be  made  between  the  two.  Although  in  this  dis- 
tribution of  things,  a  sound  was  produced  in  the  interior 
receiver,  when  motion  was  communicated  to  the  hammer, 
yet  the  bell  remained  mute  with  regard  to  the  observer ; 
he  perceived  no  sound. 

The  loudness  of  sounds  consequently  depend  in  some 
measure  upon  the  density  or  rarity  of  the  air.  When 
the  air  is  dense  a  distant  bell  is  heard  more  distinctly 
than  usual.  A  cannon  fired  on  the  top  of  a  mountain  is 
not  heard  so  distinctly  as  it  would  be  in  a  less  elevated 
situation,  on  account  of  the  rarity  of  the  air.  Saus- 
sure  noticed  this  when  upon  the  Alps.  The  pistol 
which  he  discharged  at  that  great  elevation,  produced 
scarcely  anything  but  a  flash.  In  a  deep  mine,  where 
the  air  is  denser  than  at  the  surface,  the  sound  would  be 
louder  than  usual.  The  thundering  noise,  however, 
which  travellers  produce  in  caverns,  is  not  owing  chiefly 
to  this  cause,  but  to  reverberations  which  will  be  subse- 
quently explained. 

Sound  is  affected  not  only  by  different  degrees  of 
density  in  the  atmosphere,  but  it  varies  in  the  same  way, 
when  produced  in  different^ases  of  various  densities. 

'  Sounding  bodies  vibrate  much  more  rapidly,  if 
placed  in  hydrogen,  than  in  common  air,  and  more 
quickly  in  common  air,  than  in  any  of  the  heavier 
gases  :" —  because  the  lighter  the  air,  the  less  is  the 
resistance  to  a  body  moving  in  it.  Thus  also  a  bell  will 


315 


ring  under  water,  but  produce  a  much  graver  sound  than 
in  the  air. 

1  That  water  also  is  a  vehicle  of  sound,  is  proved  by 
the  fact  last  mentioned,  by  the  distinctness  with  which 
the  blows  of  workers  around  a  diving-bell  are  heard 
above,  and  by  the  fact  that  fishes  hear  very  acutely.'* 

III.  MOTION    OF    SOUND. 

1.   Communication  of  sound  through  solids. 

Sound  is  communicated  also  through  solids.  The 
vibrations  move  even  with  greater  rapidity  through  a 
solid  substance  ;  the  following  are  examples  : 

';Children  often  suspend  a  pair  of  tongs  or  other  metal- 
lic substance  by  a  string,  the  end  of  which  is  pressed 
into  the  ear.  The  sound  in  this  case,  is  heard  much 
more  distinctly  than  usual,  the  vibrations  being  conveyed 
by  the  solid  fibres  of  the  string.  In  the  same  manner 
the  scratch  of  a  pin  at  one  end  of  a  log  of  wood  is 
directly  heard  by  the  ear  applied  at  the  other  end', 
although  through  the  air  it  is  not  at  all  audible.  Sava- 
ges often  discover  the  proximity  of  enemies,  or  of  prey, 
by  applying  an  ear  to  the  ground  and  hearing  their  tread. 
The  approach  of  horsemen  at  night  is  easily  discovered 
in  the  same  way.  The  report  of  a  cannon  placed  on 
ice,  is  carried  much  farther  by  the  ice  than  by  the  arr 
around.  In  the  military  operation  of  mining,  or  cutting 
away  under  ground,  for  the  purpose  of  entering  a  citadel, 
or  blowing  up  fortifications,  the  approach  of  the  enemy 
is  often  discovered  by  the  subterranean  sound  of  the  ' 
pioneers'  tools.  The  awful  muttering  of  earthquakes  is 
merely  the  sound  of  subterranean  explosions,  conveyed 
from  amazing  distances,  by  the  solid  earth. 

'  The  readiness  with  which  solids  receive  and  transmit 
sounds,  is  further  perceived  in  the  fact,  that  a  small 
musical  box  while  held  in  the  hand,  is  scarcely  audible, 
but  when  pressed  against  a  table  or  a  door,  will  rival  a 
little  harp.  The  vibration  communicated  from  the  box, 
pervades  the  whole  of  the  wood,  and  the  extended  surface 
then  acting  on  the  air  increases  the  effect.  The  con- 

*  Arnott. 


316  SOUND. 


struclion  of  violins,  harps,  guitars,  &c,  and  of  sounding 
boards,  generally  is  governed  by  the  same  law.  In  the 
dancing-master's  kit  or  small  fiddle,  which  he  carries  in 
his  pocket,  there  are  the  same  strings,  and  the  same  bow 
as  for  a  violin,  but  it  has  very  little  sound  because  the 
extent  of  its  surface  is  so  small.  A  heavy  piece  of  metal, 
called  a  sourdine,  when  fixed  upon  the  bridge  of  a  violin, 
damps  the  sound,  because  it  is  a  dead  mass  resisting  the 
motion  of  the  elastic  wood.' 

2.  Motion  of  Sound  through  the  Air. 

Every  one  has  noticed  that  sound  does  not  pass  from 
place  to  place,  through  the  air  instantaneously.  We  see 
the  flash  and  the  smoke  of  a  distant  cannon  some  seconds 
before  we  hear  the  report.  When  a  cloud  is  remote 
from  us,  we  see  its  lightning,  and  a  pause,  sometimes  of 
minutes,  intervenes,  before  the  rumbling  of  the  thunder 
reaches  our  ears.  We  see  the  flashes,  in  these  cases,  at 
the  instant  of  their  occurrence,  and  hear  the  sound  after 
a  sufficient  interval  has  passed  to  allow  of  the  transmission 
of  the  vibrations  through  the  intervening  distance. 

The  velocity  with  which  sound  passes  through  the 
air,  has  been  ascertained  by  careful  experiments.  The 
method  is  obvious.  If  a  ship  stationed  at  a  known  dis- 
tance from  the  spectator,  fires  a  gun,  and  the  distance 
between  the  flash  and  the  report  is  accurately  noted  by 
means  of  a  stop  watch,  it  is  easy  to  calculate  the  velocity 
per  second.  For  example,  suppose  that  by  means  of  the 
stop  watch,  we  find  that  thirty  seconds  elapse  after  seeing 
the  flash,  before  hearing  the  report.  We  next  ascertain 
exactly  the  distance  of  the  ship.  Suppose  we  find  it  to 
be  6  miles  and  860  yards.  This  reduced  to  feet,  is 
34,260  ft.  which  divided  by  30,  the  number  of  seconds, 
gives  us  for  a  quotient  1142.  The  result  of  the  calcula- 
tion therefore  is,  that  the  sound  of  the  cannon  travels  at 
the  rate  of  1 142  feet  in  a  second. 

This  is  the  velocity  which  is  now  generally  assigned 
to  sound.  Though  different  experiments  have  given 
very  different  results,  as  the  following  table  will  show. 
The  first  number,  968  feet,  given  by  Sir  Isaac  Newton, 
was  obtained  not  by  experiment  but  by  mathematical 
calculation. 


SOUND.  317 


I 


r  Isaac  Newton, 
e  Hon.  Mr  Roberts, 
e  Hon.  Mr  Boyle, 

Dr  Walker, 

Mersennus, 


968  Princip  Phil  Nat  L  2,  Prop.  50, 
1300  Phil.  Trans.  No  209. 
1200  E*say  of  languid  Motion,  p  29 
1338  Phil.  Trans.  No  247. 
1474  Balistic  Prop.  39. 


,Mr  FlamsteadandDrHalley,  1142  Exper.  per  Acad.  del.  Cimen 

'The  Florentine  Academy.         ill46  P.  141. 

The  French  Observers,  J1172  Du  Hamel  Hist.  Acad.  Rex. 


3.  Experiments  for  calculating  the  velocity  of  Sound. 

Perhaps  the  most  careful  of  the  experiments  which 
have  been  performed,  were  those  of  Derham,  not  far  from 
London.  One  observer  ascended  a  hill  to  discharge  a 
gun,  and  others  took  their  stations  upon  other  hills  at 
various  distances  from  three  to  twelve  miles.  In  order 
to  measure  the  time,  they  had  a  very  accurate  instrument, 
with  a  pendulum  vibrating  half  seconds.  That  the  reader 
may  judge  of  the  particularity  and  accuracy  with  which 
the  experiments  were  performed,  we^ubjoin  the  queries 
which  the  philosophers  proposed  to  themselves,  and  with 
reference  to  which  the  arrangements  of  the  experiments 
were  made. 

'  J .  How  much  space  sound  passed  through  in  a  second, 
or  any  other  interval  of  time?  2.  Whether  a  gun  dis- 
charged towards  the  observer,  transmit  the  report  in  the 
same  space  of  time,  as  when  discharged  the  contrary  way  1 
3.  Whether,  in  any  state  of  the  atmosphere,  when  the 
mercury  either  ascends  or  descends  in  the  barometer, 
sound  pass  over  the  same  space  in  the  same  interval  of 
time  ?  4.  Whether  sound  move  with  greater  velocity  in 
the  day-time,  than  in  the  night?  5.  Whether  a  favorable 
wind  accelerate  sound,  and  a  contrary  wind  retard  it ; 
and  how  winds  affect  sound  ?  6.  Whether  sound  move 
with  a  greater  velocity  in  a  calm  day,  than  when  the  wind 
blows  ?  7.  Whether  a  violent  wind  blowing  transversely 
accelerate  or  retard  the  motion  of  sound  ?  8.  Whether 
sound  have  the  same  degree  of  motion  in  summer  and. 
winter,  by  day  and  night,  in  snowy  and  in  fair  weather  ? 
9.  Whether  a  great  and  small  sound  have  the  same  degree 
of  motion  ?  10.  Whether  in  all  elevations  of  a  gun  ;  viz. 
from  point  blank  to  ten,  twenty,  and  ninety  degrees, 


318  SOUND. 

sound  reach  the  observer's  ear  in  the  same  space  of  time  1 
11.  Whether  all  sorts  of  sounds,  as  those  of  guns,  bells, 
hammers,  &-c,  have  the  same  degree  of  motion  ?  12. 
Whether  the  different  strength  of  gunpowder  vary  the 
motion  of  sound  ]  13.  Whether  sound  pass  over  the 
same  space  in  the  same  interval  of  time,  on  the  tops  of 
high  mountains,  and  in  the  bottoms  of  valleys  ;  or  in  the 
highest  and  lowest  parts  of  the  atmosphere  ?  14.  Whether 
sound  in  acclivities  and  declivities  have  the  same  degree 
of  motion;  or  whether  it  descends  from  the  top  to  the 
foot  of  the  hill  with  the  same  velocity,  as  it  ascends  from 
the  foot  to  the  top  of  the  same  1  15.  Whether  sound 
move  swifter  in  the  beginning,  and  slower  at  the  end;  as 
is  the  case  in  a  great  many  other  violent  motions  1  16. 
Or  whether  it  be  not  rather  equable  1  viz.  moving  in 
half  the  time,  over  half  the  space  ;  in  a  fourth  part  of  the 
time,  a  fourth  part  of  the  space,  &c.  17.  Whether 
sound  have  the  same  degree  of  motion  in  all  climates, 
both  north  and  soudfr,  in  England,  France,  Italy,  Germany, 
&,c  1  18.  Whether  sound  pass  from  one  place  to  another 
in  a  straight  line,  or  in  the  shortest  way  ;  or  whether  it 
move  along  the  superfices  of  the  intermediate  earth  ? ' 
The  answer  to  all  these  questions  may  be  given  in  a  sin- 
gle sentence.  The  velocity  of  sound  through  the  air,  is 
under  all  circumstances  the  same.  A  wind  will  of  course 
retard  or  accelerate  it,  according  to  the  velocity  of  the 
wind. 

On  account  of  'the  variation  in  the  results  of  previous 
experiments,  the  French  [Academy  of  Sciences,  in  1728 
undertook  them  anew.  They  stationed  a  cannon  at 
Monthlery,  and  noticed  the  report  at  Montmartre  near 
Paris,  a  distance  of  2  miles,  4076  feet.  They  found 
the  sound  to  have  a  uniform  velocity  of  1107  feet  in  a 
second  ;  so  that  it  was  merely  weaker  at  a  greater  dis- 
tance, but  passed  successively  through  equal  spaces  in 
equal  times.  The  velocity  seemed  to  be  affected  by  no 
circumstances  but  the  direction  and  force  of  the  wind. 
It  was  the  same  in  rainy  as  in  settled  weather.  The 
wind  occasioned  no  variation  when  it  blew  in  a  direction 
perpendicular  to  a  line  drawn  from  the  cannon  to  the 
observer,  But  when  both  were  in  the  same  direction,  it 


SOUND.  319 

was  necessary  to  add  the  velocity  of  the  wind  to  that  of 
the  sound  ;  when  in  opposite  directions,  this  was  to  be 
subtracted.  The  force  of  the  sound  was  found  to  cause 
no  change  in  the  velocity,  the  feeblest  report  reaching 
the  ear  in  an  equal  space  of  time  with  the  loudest. 

The  velocity  of  sound  as  determined  by  the  French 
Academicians,  is  less  by  35  feet  than  the  commonly  re- 
ceived computation  of  Derham,  1142.  The  Florentine 
Academy  make  it  1148.  Farther  experiments  are  neces- 
sary to  determine  which  of  these  is  nearest  to  truth  ;  or 
whether  the  velocity  does  not  vary  in  different  times, 
places,  and  temperatures.  Some  late  philosophers  have 
doubted  the  uniformity  of  the  velocity.  Yet  Derham, 
whose  experiments  have  been  conducted  with  great  care, 
says,  '  That  in  all  weathers,  whether  the  sky  be  clear 
and  serene,  or  cloudy  and  turbid,  whether  it  snows  or 
rains,  thunders  or  lightens,  whether  hot  or  cold,  winter 
or  summer,  whether  the  mercury  in  the  barometer  rises 
or  falls,  in  all  changes  of  atmosphere,  wind  only  excepted, 
the  velocity  of  sound  is  neither  more  nor  less ;  only 
the  sound  will  be  more  or  less  loud. 

As  before  stated,  some  other  philosophers  have  sup- 
posed that  they  could  perceive  a  difference  in  the  velocity 
of  sound,  occasioned  by  various  circumstances ;  such  as 
the  state  of  the  weather,  the  loudness  of  the  sound,  &c. 
But  the  experiments  of  Derham,  which  lead  to  a  different 
result,  were  performed  with  greater  care,  and  with  more 
accurate  instruments.  The  opinions  of  the  other  philos- 
ophers, too,  might  be  expected  to  be  influenced  by  the 
strong  expectation  which  any  one  would  have  of  finding 
such  a  difference.  For  example,  every  one  would  ex- 
pect that  a  very  loud  and  intense  sound  would  force  itself 
through  the  air  with  greater  velocity  than  a  faint  and 
dull  one.  Yet  the  result  of  Mr  Derham's  experiments, 
showed  that  the  sounds  of  all  bodies,  such  as  guns,  bells, 
hammers,  &c,  have  the  same  degree  of  velocity.  '  He 
compared  the  strokes  of  a  hammer,  and  the  report  of  a 
gun,  at  the  distance  of  a  mile,  (that  being  the  greatest  at 
which  he  could  hear  the  sound  of  a  hammer,)  and  he 
found  that  the  sound  of  both  reached  him  at  the  same 


320  SOUND. 


time ;  and  that  it  had  passed  over  £ ,  £,  and  £,  of  the 
same  space,  in  £ ,  4-,  and  ^-,  of  the  same  time.  As  to  intense 
and  languid  sounds,  Mr  Derham  found  that  they  pass 
through  the  same  space  in  the  same  time  ;  as  appears  from 
the  following  experiments.  At  Tilbury  Fort  were  fired  one 
or  two  common  guns,  and  also  a  great  gun,  into  which 
the  powder  was  well  rammed ;  the  report  of  all  these 
reached  Mr  Derham,  who  was  about  three  miles  off,  at 
the  same  time.  After  sun-set,  some  muskets,  sakers,* 
and  mortars  were  discharged  on  Blackheath.  Mr  Der- 
ham could  not  hear  the  muskets,  either  on  account  of  the 
great  distance,  or  because  the  air  was  not  clear  enough ; 
yet  he  heard  the  sakers  and  mortars  in  the  same  space  of 
time,  though  the  report  of  the  mortars  was  more  languid 
and  weak  than  that  of  the  sakers.' 

4.    Various    Phenomena   produced    by    the  Motion   of 
Sound.  j 

In  consequence  of  the  fact  that  it  requires  some  time 
for  sound  to  pass  through  the  air,  it  is  impossible  for  two 
sounds  at  any  distance  from  each  other,  to  be  heard  at 
the  same  moment  of  time,  by  persons  who  are  at  those 
places. 

If  A  and  B  are  standing  at  the  distance  of  one  mile 
from  each  other,  and  each  fires  a  gun  at  the  same  mo- 
ment, A  will  riot  hear  B's  gun  until  several  seconds 
after  he  hears  his  own,  because  the  sound  will  require 
that  time  to  pass  through  the  distance  between  them. 
And  the  same  will  be  the  case  with  B.  One  might 
at  first  suppose  that  if  A  should  wait  and  fire  at  the  mo- 
ment he  hears  the  report  from  B  the  two  sounds  would 
then  be  heard  together.  A  would  hear  them  together, 
but  the  time  that  must  elapse  after  B  had  fired,  before 
the  sound  from  A  would  come  to  him,  would  be  greater 
than  if  they  fired  at  the  same  moment.  For  he  must 
wait  till  the  sound  of  his  own  gun  had  gone  to  A,  and 
then  until  the  sound  of  A's  discharge  should  return  to 
him.  It  is  thus  evidently  impossible  for  two  persons, 
standing  at  a  distance  from  each  other,  to  produce  a 
sound  which  shall  be  heard  by  both,  at  the  same  time. 

*  A  spicies  of  ordnance. 


It  is  on  account  of  this  principle,  that  in  long  ranks  of 
soldiers  where  two  bands  of  music  are  placed  at  a  con- 
siderable interval  from  each  other,  it  is  impossible  for 
the  two  bands  to  keep  time  with  each  other.  They  may 
indeed  play  together,  but  each  soldier  will  hear  the 
nearest  sounds  quickest,  and  thus  they  will  seem  to  be 
out  of  time.  It  is  often  noticed  too,  that  if  from  an  emi- 
nence we  look  upon  a  long  column  which  is  marching 
to  a  band  of  music  in  front,  the  various  ranks  do  not 
step  exactly  together.  Those  in  the  rear  are  in  each 
step  a  little  later  than  those  before  them.  This  produces 
a  sort  of  undulation  in  the  whole  column,  which  is  diffi- 
cult to  describe  but  which  all  who  have  noticed  it  will 
understand.  Each  rank  steps,  not  when  the  sound  is 
made,  but  when  in  its  progress  down  the  column  at  the 
rate  of  1142  feet  per  second,  it  reaches  their  ears. 
Those  who  are  near  the  music  hear  it  as  soon  as  it  is 
produced,  while  the  others  must  wait  till  sufficient  time 
shall  have  elapsed,  for  it  to  have  passed  through  the  air 
to  them. 

Should  a  commander  stand  at  the  distance  of  a  fifth 
of  a  mile  from  his  army,  and  command  them  to  fire,  they 
might  all  obey  at  the  moment  when  the  word  of  command 
reaches  them  ;  but  the  officer  will  hear  the  report  of  the 
guns  from  those  at  the  side  nearest  him  first,  then  those 
a  little  farther  off,  and  so  on  to  the  most  remote.  Thus 
though  all  might  obey  with  equal  alacrity,  the  sounds  will 
not,  and  cannot  appear  simultaneous,  for  the  reports  of  the 
distant  guns  must  be  delayed  long  enough  for  the  com- 
mand to  pass  from  the  officer  to  the  men,  and  then  for 
the  sound  to  return.  All  attempts  therefore  to  make  the 
firing  appear  exactly  simultaneous  from  a  long  line  must 
be  in  vain. 

5.   Distances  calculated  by   the  velocity  of  Sound. 

The  velocity  of  sound  being  thus  once  ascertained,  it 
is  evidently  easy  to  calculate  with  the  assistance  of  this 
knowledge,  the  distance  of  any  object  near  which  a  loud 
sound  is  produced,  as  a  ship  firing  a  gun  at  sea,  or  a 
thunder  cloud. 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xiii.         29 


322  SOUND. 

In  order  to  illustrate  this  subject,  let  us  suppose  our- 
selves standing  on  an  elevated  rock  near  the  sea-shore ; 
a  cannon  is  fired  from  a  distant  ship,  and  we  are  desirous 
to  know  the  number  of  miles  the  ship  is  below  us.  We 
observe  the  moment  when  we  see  the  flash  of  the  cannon, 
and  then  by  a  stop  watch  or  by  some  accurate  instrument 
count  the  number  of  seconds  which  elapse  before  we  hear 
the  report.  Suppose  it  to  be  30  seconds.  Now,  as  it  has 
been  ascertained,  that  sound  travels  at  the  rate  of  1 142  feet 
in  a  second,  we  must  in  this  case,  multiply  114:2  by  30. 
We  shall  thus  find  that  the  ship  is  34,^60  feet  from  us. 
Dividing  34,'<2(iO  by  5280  (the  number  of  feet  in  a  mile,) 
we  find  that  the  ship  is  six  miles  and  2580  feet  from  us. 

It  is  evident  that  these  calculations  of  distances  cannot, 
in  any  case,  be  very  accurate.  It  is  difficult  to  ascertain 
the  time  within  half  a  second,  and  in  half  a  second  the 
sound  would  move  five  hundred  feet.  But  it  may  be  of 
some  service  occasionally  to  know  the  distance  of  an  ob- 
ject within  a  thousand  feet.  If  chased  at  sea  by  a  pirate, 
it  would  be  a  satisfaction  to  know  that  his  ship  is  many 
miles  from  it,  even  if  we  were  not  sure  whether  it  was 
seven  miles  or  seven  and  a  half.  In  a  thunder  storm, 
also,  perfect  accuracy  in  regard  to  the  distance  of  the 
cloud  is  not  necessary.  In  the  same  manner,  the  distance 
of  a  thunder  cloud  in  a  storm,  may  be  easily  calculated 
by  noticing  the  time  which  elapses  between  the  lightning 
and  the  thunder.  It  will  be  recollected  by  our  readers, 
that  every  flash  of  lightning  is  attended  by  a  clap  of 
thunder  ;  and  that  they  both  really  take  place  at  the  same 
instant,  though  we  see  the  flash  usually  at  the  moment  it 
occurs,*  while  we  must  wait  for  the  sound  of  the  thun- 
der to  traverse  the  intermediate  distance.  In  case  a 
stop  watch  is  not  at  hand,  the  distance  may  be  calculated 
with  some  success,  by  counting  the  pulsations  of  any 
healthy  individual.  These  pulsations  are  generally  about 
once  a  second. 

*  Light  travels  a  great  distance  almost  instantaneously,  it  re- 
quiring only  8  seconds  to  cross  the  orbit  of  the  earth,  a  distance  ot 
190,000,000  of  mile*.  Consequently  in  a  passage  of  a/etc  miles,  the 
lap«e  of  time  is  not  perceptible. 


323 


IV".    THE    EAR. 

The  vibrations  in  the  air  caused  by  a  sounding  body, 
are  communicated  to  the  ear,  and  from  that  to  the  brain, 
by  the  connexion  of  which  with  the  mind,  the  idea  of 
sound  is  produced. 

The  ear  is  composed  of  an  external  ear,  so  contrived 
as  to  collect  the  vibrations  of  the  air  ;  of  a  tube  lying  at 
the  root  of  the  external  ear,  through  which  these  vibrations 
pass  to  a  thin  membrane,  called  the  drum  of  the  ear,  on 
account  of  its  resemblance  to  the  head  of  a  drum.  This 
vibrates,  and  gives  motion  to  four  small  moveable  bones, 
which  are  so  connected  with  each  other,  and  with  the 
drum  of  the  ear,  that  if  the  drum  of  the  ear  vibrate,  these 
bones  are  put  in  motion,  at  the  same  moment.  The  last 
bone  of  the  four,  is  called  the  stapes,  which  in  connexion 
with  some  complicated  parts  whose  use  is  not  fully  un- 
derstood, conveys  the  sound  to  the  auditory  nerve  which 
proceeds  from  the  brain.  When  the  vibrations  thus  come 
to  the  sensorium,  they  there  produce  found.  Strictly  speak- 
ing there  is  no  sound,  but  only  a  motion  of  particles, 
before.  A  thousand  thunders  would  produce  no  sound 
unless  there  was  a  living  being  to  hear.  Without  this 
they  would  occasion  only  silent  agitations  of  the  air. 

V.  REFLECTION  OF  SOUND,  OR  ECHO. 

Suppose  a  cannon  to  be  fired  at  a  distance  from  a  per- 
pendicular wall.  This  causes  vibrations  in  the  air,  and 
the  particles  conveying  sound  at  length  reach  the  wall, 
and  not  being  able  to  proceed  any  further,  return  back, 
and  produce  what  we  call  a  reverberation  or  echo. 

The  echo  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  experi- 
ment. If  a  pebble  be  thrown  into  the  centre  of  a  vessel 
containing  water,  circular  waves  will  be  immediately 
formed  around  the  place  where  it  falls,  and  will  gradually 
extend  until  they  reach  the  sides  of  the  vessel  ;  when 
not  being  able  to  proceed  farther,  they  will  be  reflected, 
as  it  were,  and  a  new  succession  of  waves  will  extend 
towards  the  centre.  The  air  moves  in  precisely  the  same 
manner  in  the  production  of  the  echo. 

An  echo  follows  every  sound  which  is  made,  but  it 
generally  follows  the  principal  sound  so  immediately  that 
we  do  not  perceive  it.  The  more  distant  a  sound  is  from 


324  SOUND. 

the  object  which  reflects  it,  the  longer  will  the  echo  be  in 
returning. 

Consequently,  a  person  speaking  in  a  large  hall,  is 
obliged  to  speak  more  slowly  than  he  would  in  a  small 
room,  in  order  to  give  the  echo  time  to  return  from  all 
parts  of  the  building.  If  he  neglects  this,  and  speaks  as 
rapidly  as  usual,  it  will  be  almost  impossible  to  under- 
stand him,  as  the  words  which  he  utters  will  be  con- 
founded with  the  returning  echo. 

Remarkable  Echoes. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  most  celebrated  echoes, 
which  writers  have  noticed. 

Dr  Plot,  in  his  Natural  History  of  Oxfordshire,  men- 
tions an  echo  in  Woodstock  Park,  in  Oxfordshire,  which 
repeats  seventeen  syllables  in  the  day-time,  and  twenty 
in  the  night.  The  difference  if  there  is  any  is  probably 
occasioned  by  the  stillness  of  the  night  which  renders 
the  sounds  more  audible. 

Harris  describes  an  echo  on  the  north  side  of  the 
Shipley  church,  in  Sussex,  as  repeating  twentyone  sylla- 
bles distinctly,  under  favorable  circumstances. 

Dr  Birch  informs  us,  that  there  was  an  echo  at  Rose- 
neath,  in  Argyleshire,  in  Scotland,  which  distinctly 
repeated,  three  times,  a  tune  played  on  a  trumpet.  When 
a  person,  placed  at  a  proper  distance,  plays  eight  or  ten 
notes,  they  are  correctly  repeated,  but  a  third  lower  ; 
after  a  short  silence,  another  repetition  is  heard,  in  a 
still  lower  tone  ;  and,  after  another  short  interval,  there  is 
a  third  repetition,  in  a  yet  lower  tone. 

Addison  describes  an  echo  at  the  palace  of  Simonetta. 
near  Milan,  as  returning  the  sound  of  a  pistol  fiftysix 
times.  The  palace  has  two  wings ;  and,  when  a  pistol 
is  fired  from  a  window  in  one  of  the  wings,  the  sound  is 
reflected  from  a  dead  wall  in  the  other  wing,  and  is  heard 
from  a  window  in  the  back  front.  The  following  ac- 
count of  it,  however,  from  Keysler,  is  more  minute  and 
interesting. 

'  At  the  Marquis  Simonetta's  villa  is  a  very  extraordi- 
nary echo ;  it  is  occasioned  by  the  reflection  of  the 
voice  between  the  opposite  parallel  wings  of  the  building, 
which  are  fiftyeight  common  paces  from  each  other,  and 


SOUND.  325 

* 

without  any  windows  or  doors,  by  which  the  sound  might 
be  dissipated  or  lost.  The  repetition  of  the  sound  dwells 
chiefly  on  the  last  syllable,  which  might  have  been  alter- 
ed by  allowing  a  greater  distance  between  the  two  wings  ; 
but  possibly  it  was  apprehended,  that  the  number  of  the 
repetitions  would  be  diminished  by  that  means.  Two  or 
more  bodies  placed  opposite  each  other,  at  different 
distances,  are  requisite  to  form  a  multiplied  echo  ;  or  the 
wall  at  which  the  speaker  stands,  must  have  another  wall 
opposite  to  it,  so  as  to  form  two  parallel  planes,  which 
will  alternately  reflect  to  each  other  the  sound  communi- 
cated to  them,  with  as  little  dissipation  as  possible.  This 
last  circumstance  is  found  in  the  two  parallel  wings  of 
this  seat,  which,  forming  right  angles  with  the  main  body 
of  the  building,  have  a  very  surprising  effect.  A  man's 
voice  is  repeated  above  forty  times,  and  the  report  of  a 
pistol  above  sixty,  by  this  echo  :  but  the  repetition  is  so 
quick,  that  it  is  difficult  to  tell  them,  or  even  to  mark 
them  down,  unless  it  be  early  in  the  morning,  or  in  a 
calm  still  evening ;  when  the  air  is  rather  too  moist  or 
too  dry,  the  effect  is  found  not  to  answer  so  well.' 

Southwell  mentions  a  building,  similar  to  the  palace 
of  Simonetta,  which  had  projecting  wings,  and  produced 
sixty  repetitions  of  every  sound. 

The  Abbe  Guynet  describes  an  echo  on  the  road  from 
Rochepot  to  Chalons,  which  repeats,  in  the  day-time, 
fourteen  syllables  well  articulated,  and,  during  the  night, 
sixteen  syllables. 

About  three  leagues  from  Verdun,  there  is  a  singular 
echo,  occasioned  by  two  towers  projecting  from  the  body 
of  a  house,  and  distant  twentysix  toises,  or  about  fifty 
metres.  When  a  person  stands  in  the  line  between  the 
two  towers,  and  pronounces  a  word  in  a  pretty  high  tone, 
he  will  hear  it  repeated  twelve  or  thirteen  times  at  equal 
intervals,  and  always  more  feebly.  If  he  places  himself 
at  a  certain  distance  out  of  this  line,  the  echo  is  no 
longer  heard.  One  of  these  towers  has  a  low  apartment 
vaulted  with  hewn  stone,  while  the  other  has  its  vestibule 
vaulted. 

In  the  memoirs  of  the  French  Academy  of  Sciences 
for  1792,  there  is  described  a  curious  echo,  at  Geuefay, 


32t>  SOCND. 

, — . * 

in  the  neighborhood  of  Rouen.  A  person  who  sings, 
does  not  hear  the  repetition  of  the  echo,  but  merely  his 
own  voice ;  while  those  who  listen  hear  only  the  repeti- 
tion of  the  echo,  though  \v  ith  singular  variations.  Some- 
times the  echo  seems  to  approach,  and  at  other  times  to 
recede.  One  person  hears  a  single  voice,  and  another 
several  voices  :  one  person  hears  the  echo  on  the  right, 
and  another  on  the  left;  the  echo  always  varying  with 
the  position  of  the  person  who  hears  it. 

M.  duesnet  has  described  another  singular  echo  near 
Rouen,  in  the  Memoirs  of  the  Academy  for  1664. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Coblentz,  on  the  banks  of 
the  Rhine,  there  is  a  very  remarkable  echo,  which  is 
described  by  Barthius,  in  his  notes  upon  the  Thebaid  of 
Statius.  He  has  heard  it  repeat  words  seventeen  times, 
and  it  produces  exactly  the  same  effects  as.  that  at 
Genefay,  near  Rouen. 

At  Lochencilan,  a  lake  in  Invernesshire,  and  the 
property  of  J.  P.  Grant,  Esq.  of  Rothiemurehus,  there  is 
a  very  fine  echo.  The  wall  of  an  old  castle,  in  the  mid- 
dle of  the  lake,  repeats  several  syllables  with  great  dis- 
tinctness ;  and  when  a  pistol  is  fired,  the  sound  is  repeated 
about  thirty  times,  from  the  numerous  and  lofty  hills  with 
which  the  lake  is  encircled. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Edinburgh,  in  the  King's 
Park,  there  is  a  place  called  the  Echoing  Rock.  A  per- 
son standing  in  front  of  this  will  hear  repeated  with  great 
distinctness  several  syllables  which  he  may  utter.  The 
sound  in  this  case  is  reflected  from  a  circular  wall  at  no 
great  distance,  and  the  rock  to  which  the  property  is 
ascribed  merely  happens  to  be  near  the  centre  of  the  cir- 
cular wall. 

In  erecting  the  baptistry  of  the  church  of  Pisa,  the 
architect,  Giovanni  Pisano,  disposed  the  concavity  of  the 
cupola  in  such  a  manner,  that  any  noise  from  below  is 
followed  with  a  very  loud  and  long  double  echo.  The 
repetition,  however,  is  not  so  distinct  as  that  of  Simonetta. 
Two  persons  whispering,  and  standing  opposite  to  each 
other,  with  their  faces  near  the  wall,  can  converse  to- 
gether without  being  overheard  by  the  company  between. 
This  arises  from  the  elliptical  form  of  the  cupola,  each 
person  being  placed  in  the  focus  of  the  ellipse. 


SOUND.  327 

In  the  Cathedral  church  of  Gloucester,  there  is  a 
whispering  'gallery  above  the  eastern  extremity  of  the 
choir,  which  extends  from  one  end  of  the  church  to  the 
other.  If  two  persons,  placed  at  the  distance  twentyfive 
toises,  speak  to  one  another  in  the  lowest  voice,  it  is  dis- 
tinctly heard.  A  similar  effect  is  produced  in  the  vesti- 
bule of  the  Observatory  of  Paris,  and  in  the  cupola  of  St 
Paul's  in  London.  Mr  Southwell  informs  us,  that,  in 
Italy,  on  the  way  to  Naples,  and  two  days'  journey  from 
Rome,  he  saw  in  an  inn,  a  square  vault,  where  a  whisper 
could  easily  be  heard  at  the  opposite  corner,  but  not  at 
all  on  the  side  corner  that  was  near  to  you.  This  pro- 
perty was  common  to  each  corner  of  the  room.  He  saw 
another  on  the  way  from  Paris  to  Lyons,  in  the  porch  of 
a  common  inn,  which  had  a  round  vault.  When  any 
person  held  his  mouth  to  the  side  of  the  wall,  several  per- 
sons could  hear  his  whisper  on  the  opposite  side. 

The  whispering  gallery  in  St  Paul's,  London,  is  a 
great  curiosity.  It  is  1 40  yards  in  circumference.  It 
is  just  below  the  dome,  which  is  430  feet  in  chcum- 
ference.  A  stone  seat  runs  round  the  gallery  along  the 
front  of  the  wall.  On  the  side  directly  opposite  the  door 
by  which  visitors  enter,  several  yards  of  the  seat  are 
covered  with  matting,  on  which  the  visitor  being  seated, 
the  man  who  shows  the  gallery  whispers  with  the  mouth 
near  the  wall,  at  the  distance  of  140  feet  from  the 
visitor,  who  hears  his  words  in  a  loud  voice,  seemingly  at 
his  ear.  The  mere  shutting  of  the  door  produces  a 
sound  like  a  peal  of  thunder  rolling  among  the  moun- 
tains. The  effect  is  not  so  perfect  if  the  visitor  sits 
down  halfway  between  the  door  and  matted  seat,  and 
much  less  if  he  stands  near  the  man  who  speaks,  but  on 
the  other  side  of  the  door. 

VI.    MUSICAL    SOUNDS. 

The  smallesfnumber  of  vibrations  which  will  produce 
sound,  is  twelve  and  a  half  per  second,  and  the  greatest 
number  audible  is  6400  per  second.  There  are  two 
methods,  both  exceedingly  ingenious  and  curious,  by 
which  these  numbers  are  ascertained,  which  however, 
cannot  here  be  explained. 


323  SOUND. 

If  a  person  should  have  a  bar  of  steel  vibrating  at  the 
rate  of  twelve  and  a  half  times  a  second,  a  very  low  hum 
would  be  heard,  — so  low  that  it  would  scarcely  be  perceiv- 
ed that  it  was  a  sound.  Then  if  the  experimenter  should 
have  another  bar  of  steel,  so  adjusted  that  it  would 
vibrate,  twice  as  fast,  that  is,  at  the  rate  of  tioentyjive 
times  per  second,  it  would  evidently  produce  two  vibra- 
tions to  every  one  of  the  first  bar.  Thus  the  bars  would 
correspond  at  every  other  vibration,  and  no  two  bars  can 
correspond  more  closely. 

A  person  might  for  a  moment  think  that  if  one  vibrates 
thirteen  times,  when  the  other  vibrates  twelve  and  a  half, 
they  will  coincide  more  nearly.  But  in  this  case,  they 
would  only  coincide  at  the  thirteenth  vibration,  whereas 
if  one  vibrates  twentyjive,  while  the  other  does  twelve  and 
a  half,  they  correspond  every  second  beat.  Now  it  is 
found  that  the  two  sounds  produced  by  two  bars,  vibra- 
ting one  twice  as  fast,  as  the  other,  unite  more  completely 
and  more  pleasantly,  than  any  other  sound  ;  and  one  of 
these  is  called  the  octave  of  the  other. 

Fifty  vibrations  in  a  second  would  produce  a  sound 
an  octavs  above  the  one  vibrating  twentyfive  times,  and 
one  hundred  the  octave  above  that.  The  next  would  be 
200  in  a  second  ,  the  next  400  ;  then  800  ;  then  1600; 
then  3200;  and  last  6400.  This  makes  in  all  nine 
octaves,  in  which  is  included  the  whole  compass  of 
musical  sound.  Beyond  that  number  the  sound  becomes 
inaudible. 

These  octave  distances  are  subdivided  ;  that  is,  be- 
tween every  two  of  these  sounds  a  multitude  of  others 
may  be  made.  The  whole  number  of  possible  sounds, 
therefore,  is  immensely  great,  but  all  must  be  comprised 
between  the  first  and  last  of  the  sounds  above  described. 
The  first,  produced  by  twelve  and  a  half  vibrations  being 
a  low  hum  scarcely  distinguishable  as  a  sound,  and  the 
others  increasing  in  shrillness  until  the  last,  produced 
by  6400  vibrations  in  a  second  is  almost  lost  to  the  ear. 
The  human  voice  produces  only  a  small  portion  of  these 
possible  sounds,  perhaps  those  from  one  hundred  to  eight 
vibrations  in  a  second. 


SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS. 

NUMBER  XIV. 


METEORS. 

THAT  department  of  physical  science  which  treats  of 
atmospherical  phenomena  is  called  Meteorology.  This 
term  includes  all  the  various  phenomena  of  the  atmo- 
sphere, as  winds,  cloud?,  rain,  hail,  snow,  dew,  thunder, 
lightning,  and  the  fiery  meteors. 

The  word  Meteors  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to 
those  luminous  bodies,  which  occasionally  appear  in  the 
sky,  and  which  are  not  governed  by  any  known  laws. 
They  may  be  arranged  in  three  general  classes.  I.  Au- 
rora Borealis,  or  Northern  Lights.  II.  Shooting  Stars. 
III.  Ignes  Fatui,  usually  termed  Will  o'  the  Wisps,  ot 
Jack  o'  Lanterns. 

I.  Aurora  Borealis. —  When  walking  in  a  cloudless 
evening,  the  eye  is  frequently  directed  to  luminous  ap- 
pearances in  the  northern  part  of  the  heavens,  called 
Aurora  Borealis,  or  Northern  Lights.  They  are  irregu- 
lar in  their  appearance,  assuming  different  forms  and  of 
different  degrees  of  brilliancy.  Sometimes  they  con- 
tinue for  several  successive  days  and  nights  ;  and  again 
they  are  of  but  a  few  moments'  duration.  Sometimes 
there  is  a  pale  illumination  spread  over  a  large  extent  of 
sky  ;  again  large  flames  waving  to  and  fro,  and  sweeping 
from  one  point  of  the  heavens  to  the  other.  Sometimes 
they  assume  the  form  of  pillars  of  fire,  and  at  other  times 
appear  like  slender  fibrous  rays  of  light,  majestically 
moving  along  the  horizon.  These  movements  are  occa- 
sionally accompanied  with  a  hissing  noise,  or  a  low 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xiv.  30 


330  METEORS. 


rumbling,  resembling  distant  thunder.  In  the  Polar  re- 
gions where  the  shivering  inhabitants  have  one  long  night 
of  six  months,  these  lights  assume  an  intense  brilliancy, 
and  aide^.  by  the  other  luminaries  of  the  evening  sky 
give  almost  the  light  of  day,  during  the  dreary  interval 
of  the  absence  of  the  sun.  Scarcely  anything  can  sur- 
pass the  splendor  which  these  phenomena  assume,  as 
they  glitter  in  the  clear  atmosphere  of  the  frigid  zone, 
and  are  reflected  from  its  mantle  of  eternal  snow.  In  the 
northeastern  districts  of  Siberia,  according  to  the  de- 
scription of  Gruelin,*  the  Aurora  is  observed  to  '  begin 
with  single  bright  pillars  rising  in  the  north,  and  almost 
at  the  same  time  in  the  northeast ;  which  gradually  in- 
creasing, comprehend  a  large  space  of  the  heavens, 
rush  about  from  place  to  place  with  incredible  velocity, 
and  finally  cover  almost  the  whole  sky  up  to  the  zenith, 
and  produce  an  appearance,  as  if  a  vaet  tent  were  expand- 
ed in  the  heavens  glittering  with  gold,  rubies  and  sapphire. 
A  more  beautiful  spectacle  cannot  be  painted.  But 
whoever  should  see  such  a  northern  light  for  the  first 
time,  could  not  behold  it  without  terror.  For  however 
fine  the  illumination  may  be,  it  is  attended,  as  I  have 
learned  from  many  persons,  with  such  a  hissing,  crack- 
ling and  rushing  noise  through  the  air,  as  if  the  largest 
fire  works  were  playing  off.  To  describe  what  they  then 
hear,  they  make  use  of  the  expression  spo/ochi  chorfjat, 
that  is,  the  raging  host  is  passing.  The  hunters  who 
pursue  the  white  and  blue  foxes  in  the  confines  of  the 
icy  sea,  are  often  overtaken  in  their  course  by  these 
northern  lights.  Their  dogs  arc  then  so  much  frighten- 
ed that  they  will  not  move,  but  lie  obstinately  upon  the 
ground  till  the  noise  is  passed.' 

The  inhabitants  of  the  southern  hemisphere  witness 
similar  lights  in  the  south,  which  they  therefore  denomi- 
nate Aurora  Australis  or  southern  lights.  Says  Captain 
Cook,  'on  Feb.  17,  1773,  in  south  latitude  58°,  a  beau- 

*  Gruelin  was  a  German,  born  about  the  ye.u-  1700.  A  man  o 
distinguished  abilities,  and  of  a  scientific  niind.  He  was  a  member 
of  the  Academy  at  Petersburg,  and  obtained  much  celebrity  by 
publishing  a  journal  of  bis  travels  in  Siberia. 


METEORS.  331 

tiful  phenomenon  was  observed  during  the  preceding 
night,  which  appeared  again  this  and  several  following 
nights.  It  consisted  of  long  columns  of  clear  white  light 
shooting  up  from  the  horizon  to  the  eastward,  almost  to 
the  zenith,  and  gradually  spreading  on  the  whole  south- 
ern part  of  the  sky.  These  columns  were  sometimes 
bent  sideways,  at  their  upper  extremities,  and  though  in 
most  respects  similar  to  the  northern  lights  in  our  hemi- 
sphere, yet  differed  from  them  in  being  always  of  a  whitish 
color,  whereas  ours  assume  various  tints,  especially  those 
of  a  fiery  and  purple  hue.' 

Many  conjectural  opinions  have  been  formed  concern- 
ing the  cause  of  this  phenomenon.  Some  have  supposed 
it  to  be  caused  by  rays  of  light  reflected  from  the  im- 
mense masses  of  ice  floating  in  the  northern  ocean. 
Others  have  supposed  it  inflammable  air.  It  is  now 
pretty  generally  admitted  that  electricity  is  the  agent  in 
producing  these  appearances.  Every  theory  upon  the 
subject  is  however  conjectural  and  no  one  perfectly 
satisfactory.  There  can  be  but  littlw  doubt  that  electri- 
city (which  is  the  same  with  lightning)  is  the  agent. 
But  how  to  account  for  its  accumulation  at  the  poles,  and 
for  the  peculiar  phenomena  which  it  there  exhibits,  is 
difficult.  The  following  theory  is  perhaps  more  plausi- 
ble than  any  other  which  has  been  presented. 

'  The  great  quantity  of  vapor  rising  between  the  tro- 
pics forms  clouds,  which  contain  much  electricity  ;  some 
of  them  fall  in  rain,  before  they  come  to  the  polar 
regions.  Every  drop  brings  down  some  electricity  with 
it ;  the  same  is  done  by  snow  or  hail ;  the  electricity  so 
descending,  in  temperate  climates,  is  received  and  im- 
bibed by  the  earth.  If  the  clouds  be  not  sufficiently  dis- 
charged by  this  gradual  operation,  they  sometimes  dis- 
charge themselves  suddenly,  by  striking  into  the  earth, 
when  the  earth  is  fit  to  receive  their  electricity.  The 
earth  in  temperate  and  warm  climates,  is  generally  fit  to 
receive  it,  being  a  good  conductor. 

'  The  humidity  contained  in  all  the  equatorial  clouds 
that  reach  the  polar  regions,  must  there  be  condensed, 
and  fall  in  snow.  The  great  cake  of  ice  that  eternally 
covers  those  regions  may  be  frozen  too  hard  to  permit 


«'J32  METEORS. 

the  electricity's  descending  with  that  snow,  to  enter  the 
earth.  It  may  therefore  be  accumulated  on  the  ice. 
The  atmosphere  being  heavier  in  the  polar  regions  than 
in  the  equatorial,  will  there  be  lower,  as  well  from  that 
cause  as  from  the  smaller  effect  of  the  centrifugal 
force  ;  consequently  the  distance  of  the  vacuum  above 
the  lower  part  of  the  atmosphere  will  be  less  at  the  poles 
than  elsewhere,  and  much  less  than  the  distance  (upon 
the  surface  of  the  globe,)  extending  from  the  poles  to 
those  latitudes  in  which  the  earth  is  so  thawed  as  to 
receive  and  imbibe  electricity.  May  not  then  the  great 
quantity  of  electricity  brought  into  the  polar  regions  by 
the  clouds  which  are  condensed  there,  and  fall  in  snow, 
which  electricity  would  enter  the  earth,  but  cannot  pene- 
trate the  ice  ;  may  it  not,  as  a  bottle  overcharged,  break 
through  that  low  atmosphere,  and  run  along  in  the 
vacuum  over  the  air  towards  the  equator  ;  diverging  as 
the  degrees  of  longitude  enlarge,  strongly  visible  when 
densest,  and  becoming  less  visible  as  it  more  diverges ; 
till  it  finds  a  passage  to  the  earth  in  more  temperate 
climates  or  is  mingled  with  the  upper  air  ?  If  such  an 
operation  of  nature  were  really  performed,  would  it  not 
give  all  the  appearances  of  an  Aurora  Boreal  is  ?  And 
would  not  the  Auroras  become  more  frequent  after  the 
approach  of  winter  ;  not  only  because  more  visible  in 
longer  nights,  but  also  because  in  summer  the  long  pres- 
ence of  the  sun  may  soften  the  surface  of  the  great  ice 
cake,  and  render  it  a  conductor  by  which  the  accumula- 
tion of  electricity  in  the  polar  regions  will  be  pre- 
vented T 

This  theory  is  confirmed  by  the  fact  that  if  you  ex- 
haust a  glass  vessel  of  the  air,  and  then  charge  it  with 
electricity,  the  electric  fluid  in  the  vacuum  exhibits  all 
the  appearances  of  the  Aurora  Borealis.  When  the  ves- 
sel is  most  perfectly  exhausted,  the  electric  fluid  appears 
quite  white  ;  when  a  little  air  is  introduced,  it  assumes 
more  of  a  purple  hue. 

At  different  periods  of  the  world,  and  in  various  coun- 
tries, there  have  been  brilliant  illuminations  of  the 
heavens,  resembling  fiery  arches,  and  clouds,  and  flaming 


METEORS.  333 


swords,  and  contending  armies.  These  are  generally  a 
great  source  of  terror  to  the  ignorant  and  superstitious. 
Though  so  different  in  the  form  they  assume  from  the 
usual  appearance  of  the  northern  lights,  they  are  gener- 
ally to  be  ascribed  to  the  same  cause. 

It  is  hoped,  however,  that  as  science  advances,  the 
causes  of  this  phenomenon  will  be  more  clearly  revealed. 

II.  Shooting  Stars  or  Fire  Balls.  —  There  are  other 
celestial  or  atmospherical  phenomena,  differing  so  entirely 
from  the  Aurora  Borealis  in  appearance  as  to  be  undoubt- 
edly different  in  origin.  Fiery  Balls  shoot  with  rapidity 
through  the  heavens,  emitting  for  a  moment  a  brilliant 
light,  and  then  becoming  suddenly  and  silently  extinguish- 
ed. Sometimes  they  burst  with  a  loud  explosion  and  dis- 
appear, or  falling,  are  extinguished  in  the  ocean  or  sink 
deep  beneath  the  surface  of  the  ground.  Many  of  these 
meteors  appear  to  be  of  a  gaseous  nature,  which  in  some 
unaccountable  way  are  collected  and  inflamed,  and  which 
blaze  for  a  moment  and  are  gone.  Whence  they  came, 
or  whither  they  go,  or  by  what  power  impelled,  we  can- 
not say.  The  only  knowledge  we  can  have  of  their  exist- 
ence is  from  the  momentary  glitter  with  which  they 
dazzle  the  eye.  These  meteors  are  seldom  of  more  than 
a  few  moments'  duration,  and  sometimes  have  rivalled  the 
sun  in  splendor  and  turned  the  night  into  day.  They 
have  occasionally  been  traced  from  one  second  to  two  or 
three  seconds,  but  are  not  often  of  so  long  existence. 
They  are  of  various  shades  and  dimensions  and  of  divers 
colors.  But  they  agree  with  great  uniformity,  in  their 
transient  appearance,  in  their  velocity  and  elevation. 
Their  height  has  been  very  generally  calculated  at  from 
fifty  to  sixty  miles  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  their 
velocity  at  from  twenty  to  thirty  miles  a  second.  Numer- 
ous hypotheses  have  been  advanced  to  account  for  these 
extraordinary  phenomena.  Some  have  supposed  them 
luminous  vapors ;  some  electrical  appearances ;  some 
volcanic  substances  propelled  into  the  atmosphere  by  ex- 
plosions of  great  violence  :  others  suppose  that  some  of 
them  are  of  a  gaseous  nature,  fortuitously  collected  in 
the  atmosphere,  and  the  more  compact  of  them  are  thrown 
from  volcanos  in  the  moon.  None  of  these  theories  are 

VOL.  I., — NO.  XIV.  30* 


334  METEORS. 

perfectly  satisfactory.  A  famous  meteor  was  observed 
passing  over  Italy  in  March,  1076.  About  an  hour  and 
three  quarters  after  sunset,  thousands  of  eyes  were  attract- 
ed by  a  ball  of  fire,  flying  with  immense  velocity  through 
the  air.  Scientific  men  computed  its  height  to  be  at  least 
thirtyeight  miles.  The  ball  itself  was  above  half  a  mile 
in  diameter  and  moved  with  the  immense  rapidity  of  one 
hundred  and  sixty  miles  in  a  minute  of  time.  It  was 
heard  to  make  a  hissing  noise  as  it  passed  along,  like  that 
of  artificial  fireworks.  As  it  left  the  main  land  at  Leg- 
horn and  passed  off  to  sea  towards  Corsica,  it  was  heard 
to  give  a  report  like  a  heavy  cannon  ;  immediately  after 
which  another  sound  was  heard  like  the  rattling  of  a  great 
cart  running  aver  stones.  It  is  difficult  to  imagine  by 
what  natural  powers  this  huge  body  could  have  been  col- 
lected, or  how  an  impulse  could  have  been  communicated 
to  send  it  with  such  amazing  velocity. 

A  wonderful  meteor  somewhat  resembling  that  just 
described,  was  seen  all  over  England  in  March,  1819. 
The  following  description  is  given  by  an  eye  witness. 

1  Sir  Hans  Sloane  mentions  that  once  walking  in  the 
streets  of  London  at  about  a  quarter  past  eight  o'clock  in 
the  evening,  he  was  surprised  to  Stee  a  sudden  great  light 
far  exceeding  that  of  the  moon,  which  shone  very  bright. 
He  turned  to  the  westward  where  the  light  was,  which 
he  apprehended  at  first  to  be  artificial  fire-works,  or  rock- 
ets. Its  color  was  whitish  with  an  eye  of  blue,  of  a 
most  vivid  dazzling  lustre,  which  seemed  in  brightness 
very  much  to  resemble  if  not  to  surpass,  that  of  the  body 
of  the  sun  in  a  clear  day.  This  brightness  obliged  him 
to  turn  his  eyes  from  it  several  times,  as  well  when  it  was 
a  stream,  as  when  it  was  pear  fashioned  and  a  globe. 
There  was  left  behind  it,  when  it  had  passed,  a  track  of 
a  cloudy  or  faint  reddish  yellow  color,  such  as  red-hot 
iron  or  glowing  coals  have,  which  continued  more  than  a 
minute,  seemed  to  sparkle,  and  kept  its  place  without 
falling.  This  track  was  interrupted,  or  had  a  chasm 
towards  its  upper  end,  at  about  two  thirds  of  its  length. 
He  did  not  hear  any  noise  it  made  ;  but  the  place  where 
the  globe  of  light  had  been,  continued  for  some  time  after 
it  was  extinct,  of  the  same  reddish  color  with  the  stream, 


METEORS.  335 

and  at  first  some  sparks  seemed  to  issue  from  it,  such  as 
come  from  red-hot  iron  beaten  out  on  an  anvil.  The 
splendor  was  little  inferior  to  that  of  the  sun ;  within 
doors  the  candles  gave  no  manner  of  light ;  and  in  the 
streets  not  only  all  the  stars  disappeared,  but  the  moon, 
then  nine  days  old,  and  high  near  the  meridian,  the  sky 
being  very  clear,  was  so  far  effaced  as  to  be  scarcely  seen ; 
at  least  not  to  cast  a  shade,  even  where  the  beams  of  the 
meteor  were  intercepted  by  the  houses ;  so  that  for  some 
few  seconds  of  time  it  in  all  respects  resembled  perfect 
day.  A  loud  noise  followed  the  explosion  of  this  meteor, 
accompanied  by  an  uncommon  tremor  of  the  air,  which 
sensibly  shook  the  glass  windows  and  the  doors  of  houses, 
and  in  some  places  the  houses  themselves.  It  is  gener- 
ally admitted  that  this  meteor  must  have  been  composed 
of  inflammable  vapor  or  gas  ;  but  how  generated,  how 
inflamed,  and  whence  it  received  its  impulse,  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  imagine.  Any  solution  hithe'to  suggested,  hardly 
falls  within  the  limits  of  possibility.  It  will  at  once  be 
perceived  that  the  transient  appearance  of  these  meteors 
preclude  the  possibility  of  a  careful  examination.  No- 
thing relative  to  them  causes  greater  astonishment  than  the 
excessive  light  they  emit.  The  illumination  often  oblit- 
erates the  stars,  makes  the  moon  look  dull,  and  dazzles 
the  night  with  the  brilliancy  of  day.  There  are  many 
instances  in  which  such  meteors  have  made  a  splendid 
appearance  in  full  sunshine.  They  are  undoubtedly  of 
as  frequent  occurrence  in  the  day  as  in  the  night,  but 
being  eclipsed  by  the  superior  splendor  of  the  sun,  do  not 
attract  the  eye.' 

A  celebrated  meteor  was  observed  in  England,  August 
18,  1783,  the  following  account  of  which  was  given  by 
the  late  Mr  Cavallo.*  '  On  the  evening  of  the  18th  of 
August,  1783,  we  were  standing  upon  the  northeast  cor- 
ner of  Windsor!  terrace.  The  weather  was  calm  and 

*  Mr  Cavallo,  was  the  son  of  a  physician  at  Naples,  and  was 
born  in  1749.  He  removed  to  England  and  devoted  himself  exclu- 
sively to  scientific  pursuits.  Many  valuable  treatises  in  the  trans- 
actions of  the  Royal  Society  are  from  his  pen.  He  died  in  London 
in  1809. 

t  Windsor  on  the  Thames,  22  miles  west  of  London,  the  favorite 
country  residence  of  the  British  Kings. 


METEORS. 


agreeably  warm.  The  sky  was  serene,  excepting  very 
near  the  horizon,  where  a  haziness  just  prevented  the 
appearance  of  the  stars.  A  narrow,  rugged  and  oblong 
cloud  stood  on  the  northwest  side  of  the  heavens,  reach- 
ing from  the  extremity  of  the  haziness,  which  rose  as 
high  as  .18  or  20  degrees,  and  stretching  itself  for  several 
degrees  towards  the  east  in  a  direction  nearly  parallel  to 
the  horizon.  It  was  a  little  below  this  cloud,  and  conse- 
quently in  the  hazy  part  of  the  atmosphere,  about  the  north 
by  west  half  west  point  of  the  compass  that  this  luminous 
meteor  was  first  perceived.  Some  flashes  of  lambent 
light,  much  like  the  Aurora  Borealis,  were  first  observed 
on  the  Northern  part  of  the  heavens,  which  were  soon 
perceived  to  proceed  from  a  roundish  luminous  body, 
nearly  as  big  in  diameter  as  the  semi-diameter  of  the 
moon,  and  almost  stationary  in  the  above-mentioned  point 
of  the  heavens.  It  ^vas  then  about  twenty  rive  minutes 
after  nine  o'clock  in  the  evening.  The  ball  at  first  ap- 
peared of  a  faint  bluish  light,  perhaps  from  being  just 
kindled,  or  from  its  appearing  through  the  haziness  ;  but  it 
gradually  increased  in  light,  and  soon  began  to  move,  at 
lirst  ascending  above  the  horizon  in  an  oblique  direction 
towards  the  east.  Jts  course  in  this  direction  was  very 
short,  perhaps  of  five  or  six  degrees  ;  after  which  it  direct- 
ed its  course  towards  the  east,  and  moving  in  a  direction 
nearly  parallel  to  the  horizon,  reached  as  far  as  the  south- 
east by  east  point,  where  it  finally  disappeared.  The  whole 
duration  of  the  meteor,  was  half  a  minute  or  rather  less, 
and  the  altitude  of  its  track,  seemed  to  be  about  25  degrees 
above  the  horizon.  A  short  time  after  the  beginning  of 
its  motion,  the  luminous  body  passed  behind  the  above- 
mentioned  cloud,  without  actually  seeing  the  body  from 
which  it  proceeded  for  about  the  sixth  or  at  most  the  fifth 
part  of  its  track  ;  but  as  soon  as  the  meteor  emerged 
from  behind  the  cloud  its  light  was  prodigious.  Every 
object  appeared  very  distinct  ;  the  whole  face  of  the 
country,  in  that  beautiful  prospect  before  the  terrace,  be- 
ing instantly  illuminated.  At  this  moment  the  body  of 
the  meteor  appeared  of  an  oblong  form  ;  but  it  presently 
acquired  a  tail,  and  soon  after  it  parted  with  several  small 
bodies,  each  having  a  tail  or  elongation  ;  and  all  moving 


METEORS.  337 

in  the  same  direction,  at  a  small  distance  from  each  other, 
and  very  little  behind  the  principal  body,  the  size  of  which 
was  gradually  reduced  after  this  division.  In  this  form 
the  meteor  moved  as  far  as  the  southeast  by  east  point, 
where  the  light  decreasing  rather  abruptly,  the  whole 
disappeared. 

'  During  the  phenomenon  no  noise  was  heard  by  any 
of  our  company  excepting  one  person,  who  imagined  to 
have  heard  a  crackling  noise,  something  like  that  which 
is  produced  by  small  wood  when  burning.  But  about  ten 
minutes  after  the  disappearance  of  the  meteor,  and  when 
we  were  just  going  to  retire  from  the  terrace,  we  heard  a 
rumbling  noise  as  if  it  were  of  thunder  at  a  great  distance, 
which  in  all  probability  was  the  report  of  the  meteor's 
explosion  ;  and  it  may  be  naturally  imagined  that  this 
explosion  happened  when  the  meteor  parted  inlo  small 
bodies,  viz.  at  about  the  middle  of  its  track.'  From  the 
interval  between  the  apparent  explosion,  and  the  time  the 
report  was  heard,  the  distance  of  the  meteor  from  the 
spectators  may  be  easily  computed.  Sound  is  ascertained 
to  travel  at  the  rate  of  1 150  feet  per  second.*  About  ten 
minutes  elapsed  after  the  disappearance  of  the  meteor 
before  the  report  was  heard.  From  these  particulars  the 
following  calculations  have  been  made  with  mathematical 
accuracy  respecting  the  distance,  altitude,  course,  and 
diameter  of  this  meteor.  It  is,  however,  obvious,  that  if 
the  noise  heard  was  not  that  of  the  meteor's  explosion,  or, 
if  the  meteor  did  not  explode  when  it  appeared  to,  the 
following  results  must  be  considered  as  altogether  useless. 

D:?Unce  of  the  Meteor  from  Windsor  castle,          .  130  miles. 

Length  of  path  described  in  the  heavens,          .         .  550  miles. 
Diameter  of  the  luminous  body  when  it  came  out  of 

the  clouds, 1070  yards. 

Its  height  above  the  surface  of  the  earth,         .         .  56^  miles, 

*  The  rapidity  with  which  sound  travels  is  easily  ascertained  by 
experiment.  When  a  cannon  is  fired,  a  spectator  at  a  distance,  sees 
the  flash  some  time  before  he  hears  the  report.  Then  by  measuring 
the  distance  between  the  c:u-,non  and  himself,  and  observing  the  time 
which  elapsed  between  the  flash  and  the  report,  he  learns  bow  Jonsf 
it  took  the  sound  to  travel  that  distance.  In  the  same  manner  you 
may  learn  the  distance  of  thunder,  by  observing  the  interval  be- 
tween the  Hash  a-.id  the  report. 


338  METEORS. 

It  has  been  remarked  that  all  large  meteors  have  made 
their  first  appearance  in  the  northwest  and  passed  on 
to  the  southeast,  or  precisely  the  reverse,  moving  very 
nearly  in  the  line  of  the  present  magnetical  meridian. 

METEORIC    STONliS. 

Many  accounts  are  upon  record  in  which  the  explosion 
of  fire  balls  has  been  followed  by  a  shower  of  stones  ; 
some  so  large  as  to  sink  many  feet  into  the  earth,  and 
others  so  small  as  to  lie  loosely  upon  its  surface.  These 
stones,  in  consequence  of  their  falling  from  luminous 
bodies  or  meteors,  are  called  Meteoric  Stones  or  Meteor- 
ites. These  meteors  burst  with  an  explosion,  and  then 
the  shower  of  stones  fulls  to  the  earth.  Sometimes  the 
stones  continue  luminous  till  they  reach  the  earth,  but 
usually  their  luminousness  disappears  at  the  time  of  the 
explosion.  Their  size  differs  from  a  few  ounces  to  sev- 
eral tons.  They  all  resemble  each  other  though  falling 
in  the  most  distant  parts  of  the  globe.  They  are  all  com- 
posed of  nearly  the  same  ingredients  and  completely 
differ  from  every  other  known  stone.  It  seems  therefore 
that  these  stones  must  have  some  common  origin  —  for  it 
seems  otherwise  inconceivable  that  in  India,  England, 
France,  Germany,  Italy,  and  America,  stones  should  have 
fallen  which  differ  from  every  other  mineral  in  the  coun- 
tries in  which  they  are  found,  aad  which  almost  exactly 
resemble  one  another.  In  Fiance,  in  1492,  a  huge  stone 
was  seen  to  fall  immediately  after  a  loud  thunder  clap. 
On  going  to  the  place  a  hole  was  discovered,  and  digging 
out  the  stone,  it  was  found  to  have  entered  three  feet  deep, 
and  weighed  260  pounds.  '  In  1790,  in  France,  about 
ten  at  night,  a  luminous  ball  was  seen  traversing  the 
atmosphere  with  great  rapidity,  and  leaving  behind  it  a 
train  of  light  which  lasted  about  fifty  seconds.  Soon  a 
loud  explosion  was  heard  and  sparks  were  seen  flying  off 
in  all  directions.  This  was  soon  after  followed  by  a  fall 
of  stones  over  a  considerable  extent  of  ground  and  at 
various  distances  from  each  other.  These  were  all  alike 
in  appearance,  but  of  many  different  sizes,  the  greater 
number  weighing  about  two  ounces,  but  many  a  vast  deal 
more;  some  fell  with  a.  hissing  noise  and  entered  the 


METEORS.  339 

ground,  but  the  smaller  ones  remained  on  the  surface. 
The  shower  did  no  considerable  damage,  only  breaking 
the  tiles  of  some  of  the  houses.'  These  showers  are  not 
always,  however,  harmless.  In- Bordeaux,  in  1789,  a  stone 
fell  through  the  roof  of  a  cottage  and  killed  a  herdsman 
and  some  cattle.  Parts  of  this  stone  are  now  preserved 
in  the  Museum  at  Bordeaux. 

The  following  is  an  account  of  some  meteorites  which 
fell  in  Tennessee,  May  9,  1827.  It  is  given  on  the  author- 
ity of  the  Rev.  Hugh  Kirkpatrick. 

'  On  Wednesday  the  9th  inst.  about  4  o'clock  P.  M., 
the  day  being  as  clear  as  usual,  my  son  and  servants 
were  planting  corn  in  the  field  ;  they  heard  a  report  simi- 
lar to  that  of  cannon,  which  was  continued  in  the  air, 
resembling  the  firing  of  cannon  or  muskets  by  platoons, 
and  the  beating  of  drums  as  in  a  battle.  Some  small 
clouds  with  a  trail  of  black  smoke,  made  a  terrific  appear- 
ance, and  from  them  without  doubt,  came  a  number  of 
stones  with  a  loud  whizzing  noise,  which  struck  the 
earth  with  a  sound  like  that  of  a  ponderous  body.  One 
of  those  stones  my  son  heard  fall  about  fifty  yards  from 
where  he  was.  In  its  descent  it  struck  a  tree,  of  the 
size  of  a  small  handspike,  and  tore  it  to  pieces  as  light- 
ning would  have  done.  Guided  by  the  tree  he  immedi- 
ately found  the  spot,  and  there  he  found  the  stone  about 
eight  or  ten  inches  under  the  ground.  This  stone  weighed 
five  pounds  and  a  quarter;  Mr  James  Dugge  was  also 
present.  They  stated  that  the  stone  was  cold,  but  had 
the  scent  of  sulphur.' 

'  On  the  same  day  and  about  the  same  time,  Mr  Peter 
Kitsing  was  in  the  field  with  his  laborers,  about  one 
mile  distant,  when  a  stone  fell  which  weighed  eleven 
pounds  and  a  half.  A  number  of  respectable  men  were 
present  when  it  was  found  and  taken  up.  It  was  twelve 
inches  under  the  ground.  I  have  seen  one  that  fell  at 
Mr  David  Garrett's,  and  part  of  one  that  fell  at  Mr  John 
Bones',  and  have  also  heard  of  one  more  that  has  been 
found.  These  stones  are  perfectly  similar,  glazed  with 
a  thin  black  crust,  and  bear  the  marks  of  having  been 
through  a  body  of  fire  and  black  smoke.  Many  gentle- 
men who  have  been  incited  within  a  few  days  to  come 


340  METEORS. 

to   my  house   to  see  them,   say  they  never   saw   such 
before.' 

This  stone  was  analyzed  by  Mr  Leybert,  a  gentleman 
of  distinguished  skill  in  this  peculiarly  difficult  kind  of 
investigation.  According  to  his  analysis,  the  stone  was 
found  to  be  composed  of  the  following  ingredients  : 


Per 

100  parts. 

Silica, 

40 

Protoxide  of  Nickel,     - 

2  166 

Magnesia, 

23  fe33 

Alumina,       ... 

2  466 

Protoxide  of  Chrome, 

0  833 

Metallic  lion,      - 

12  000 

Per  Oxide  of  Iron,     - 

13  200 

Sulphur, 

2  433 

93  931 

100  000 

[metrical  Moisture. 
4069          Loss  and  Hygro- 

All  the  Meteorites,  in  whatever  part  of  the  world  they 
have  fallen,  are  composed  of  nearly  the  same  ingredients. 
Where  do  these  stones  comt;  from  1  This  is  a  question 
which  as  yet  remains  unanswered.  We  may  safely  infer 
that  these  bodies  have  not  been  thrown  from  any  terres- 
trial volcano;  for  no  native  minerals  of  a  similar  nature 
have  been  found  in  any  part  of  the  globe  ;  neither  can 
the  phenomena  attending  them  be  accounted  for  upon 
this  hypothesis  ;  neither  are  there  any  known  volcanos 
in  'many  parts  of  the  world  in  which  they  have  fallen, 
frotn  which  they  could  have  been  thrown  ;  some  have 
supposed  that  they  were  formed  in  the  upper  parts  of  the 
atmosphere.  But  there  are  no  known  laws  of  nature 
which  allow  us  to  assign  them  this  origin.  A  splendid 
theory  has  been  erected,  which  supposes  them  to  have 
been  thrown  from  some  volcano  of  the  moon.  This  is 
the  most  probable  supposition,  still  it  is  not  free  from 
many  difficulties.  The  Journal  of  Philosophical  Trans- 
actions remarks,  that  it  appears  impossible  to  ascribe 
these  phenomena  to  a  formation  in  the  superior  parts  of 
the  atmosphere,  or  to  the  irruptions  of  terrestrial  volca- 
nos ;  but  it  is  possible  for  such  masses  to  be  projected 


METEORS.  341 

from  the  moon  so  as  to  reach  the  earth  ;  and  that  all  the 
phenomena  of  these  meteors  or  falling  stones,  have  a 
surprising  conformity  with  the  circumstances  which 
would  be  expected  to  attend  masses,  expelled  from  the 
moon  by  natural  causes.  These  things  unite  in  forming 
a  body  of  strong  evidence,  that  this  is,  in  all  probability 
actually  the  case.  All  those  luminous  balls  however, 
which  occasionally  make  their' appearance  in  the  hea- 
vens, are  involved  in  much  obscurity.  They  may  be  all 
of  the  same  origin;  they  maybe  of  different  natures. 
Their  transient  appearance  awakens  a  curiosity  which 
science  as  yet  is  unable  to  allay. 

Falling  Stones.  —  Many  persons  have  expressed  much 
incredulity  respecting  the  reality  of  stones  falling  from 
the  atmosphere.  I  have  just  been  examining  a  stone 
which  fell  in  Virginia ;  it  very  much  resembles  that 
which  fell  in  Tennessee  as  described  in  this  tract.  No 
one  who  has  attended  to  this  subject  can  have  the  least 
doubt  respecting  the  reality  and  the  frequency  of  this 
phenomenon.  A  stone  fell  in  Forsyth,  in  Georgia,  in 
May,  1829.  It  is  thus  described  by  an  eye-witness  : 
'  Between  three  and  four  o'clock,  on  the  8th  instant, 
a  small  black  cloud  appeared  south  from  Forsyth,  from 
which  two  distinct  explosions  were  heard,  following 
in  immediate  succession,  succeeded  by  a  tremendous 
lumbling  or  whizzing  noise,  passing  through  the  air  ; 
which  lasted  from  the  best  accounts  from  two  to  four 
minutes.  This  extraordinary  noise  was,  on  the  same 
evening  accounted  for  by  Mr  Sparks  and  Captain  Por- 
tian,  who  happened  to  be  near  some  negroes  working 
in  a  field,  one  mile  south  of  this  place,  who  discovered  a 
large  stone  descending  through  the  air,  weighing,  as  was 
afterwards  ascertained,  thirtysix  pounds.  The  stone  was 
in  the  course  of  the  evening,  or  very  early  the  next  morn- 
ing recovered  from  the  spot  where  it  fell.  It  had  pene- 
trated the  earth  two  feet  and  a  half.  The  outside,  wore 
the  appearance  as  if  it  had  been  in  a  furnace :  it  was 
covered  about  the  thickness  of  a  common  knife  blade, 
with  a  black  substance  somewhat  like  lava  that  had  been 
melted.  On  breaking  the  stone,  it  had  a  strong  sulphur- 
ous smell,  and  exhibited  a  metallic  substance  resembling 
silver.  The  stone  however  when  broken,  had  a  white 

VOL.  i.  — NO.  xiv.         31 


342  METEORS: 

appearance  on  the  inside,  with  veins.  By  the  applica- 
tion of  steel  it  would  produce  fire. 

The  facts,  as  related,  can  be  supported  by  many  in- 
dividuals who  heard  the  explosion  and  rumbling  noise, 
and  saw  the  stone.' 

Dr  Boykin  of  Georgia  remarks,  '  no  one  can  tell  from 
what  direction  the  meteor  came.  The  first  thing  noticed 
was  the  report,  like  that  of  a  large  piece  of  ordnance  ; 
some  say  the  principal  explosion  was  succeeded  by  a 
number  of  lesser  ones  in  quick  succession,  similar  to  the 
explosions  of  a  cracker  ;  one  has  told  me  the  secondary 
noise  was  only  a  reverberation.  Very  soon  after  the 
explosion  some  black  people  heard  a  whizzing  noise, 
and  on  looking  saw  a  faint  smoke  descend  to  the  ground  ; 
at  which  time  they  heard  "the  noise  produced  by  the  fall 
of  the  stone ;  they  ran  to  the  spot,  for  they  saw  where  it 
fell,  and  discovered  the  hole  it  had  made  in  the  ground, 
being  more  than  two  feet  in  a  hard  clay  soil.  The 
negroes  and  others  who  went  early  to  the  spot,  say  they 
perceived  a  sulphurous  smell.  The  stone  weighed 
thirtysix  pounds  ;  it  fell  at  a  small  angle  with  the 
horizon.' 

Had.  this  matter  appeared  in  the  night,  it  would  un- 
doubtedly have  appeared  luminous,  but  the  superior 
splendor  of  the  sun  so  far  eclipsed  it  that  its  brilliancy 
was  unobserved.  All  these  meteorites  contain  iron. 
There  is  however  a  class  of  meteorites  a  little  different 
from  those  just  described,  consisting  almost  entirely  of 
iron.  Large  quantities  of  iron  are  found  on  the  surface 
of  the  earth,  lying  in  loose  insulated  masses,  and  at  great 
distances  from  any  mines  of  iron.  These  in  their  ap- 
pearance and  situation  give  indubitable  evidence  tif 
having  been  ejected  from  some  volcano,  or  having  de- 
scended from  the  air.  Meteoric  iron  is  generally 
whiter  and  more  malleable  than  common  iron.  Some 
of  these  masses  have  been  seen  to  descend  ;  they  have 
undoubtedly  a  very  intimate  connexion  with  the  meteoric 
stones,  and  probably  are  of  the  same  origin.  A  large 
mass  of  this  iron,  weighing  30,000  pounds,  has  been 
found  in  the  province  of  Tucuman,  in  South  America. 
In  many  other  parts  of  the  world  similar  masses  have 
been  found.  One  is  now  in  the  cabinet  of  Yale  College, 


METEORS.  343 

which  was  found  in  Louisiana ;  its  weight  exceeds  3000 
pounds.  It  contains  nickel,  and  probably  a  little  carbon, 
and  is  less  easily  oxidated  than  purified  iron.  Several 
large  masses  have  recently  been  found  in  the  valley  of 
the  Mississippi.  Mr  Sowerby,  an  English  mineralogist, 
presented  the  Emperor  Alexander  a  sword  2  feet  long 
and  1|  inches  wide,  hammered  at  a  red  heat  from  a 
mass  of  meteoric  iron  found  in  Africa.  He  received  in 
return  a  ring  set  with  diamonds,  and  inclosing  an  eme- 
rald in  the  centre.  The  descent  of  these  bodies  is  indeed 
a  wonderful  phenomenon ;  and  there  is  no  theory  pre- 
sented the  public  as  yet,  which  satisfactorily  accounts 
for  all  the  like  appearances  attending  them.  Says  Prof. 
Cleaveland,  '  The  similarity  of  aspect  and  composition 
in  almost  all  meteoric  stones,  hitherto  examined,  indi- 
cates a  common  origin.  But  this  origin  is  yet  unknown. 
It  is  impossible  to  say  when,  or  in  what  manner,  meteoric 
stones  have  been  formed.  We  can  do  no  more  than  to 
state  the  four  principal  conjectures  upon  this  subject, 
namely — 1.  Meteoric  stones  are  formed  in  the  atmos- 
phere. 2.  They  are  projected  from  terrestrial  volcanos. 
3.  They  proceed  from  lunar  volcanos.  4.  They  are 
fragments  detached  from  terrestrial  cornets.' 

The  following  well  authenticated  instances  of  stones 
falling  from  the  air  will  interest  the  reader. 

November  27,  1627,  the  sky  being  quite  clear,  Gassen- 
di,  a  celebrated  astronomer,  saw  a  burning  stone  fall  on 
mount  Vaisir,  in  the  southeast  extremity  of  France,  near 
the  city  of  Nice,  on  the  coast  of  the  Mediterranean  sea. 
While  in  the  air  it  seemed  to  be  about  4  feet  in  diameter  ; 
it  was  inclosed  in  a  luminous  circle  of  colors  like  a  rain- 
bow ;  and  in  its  fall  it  produced  a  sound  like  the  discharge 
of  cannon.  It  weighed  59  Ibs.  was  very  hard,  of  a  dull 
metallic  color,  and  in  specific  gravity  considerably  more 
than  that  of  marble. 

Prior  to  this  is  another  remarkable  instance  in  the  stone 
that  fell  near  Ensisheim,  a  considerable  town  in  Alsace, 
the  northeast  point  of  France,  near  the  upper  Rhine,  a 
little  north  of  Brazil.  This  was  in  1492.  November  7, 
between  eleven  and  twelve,  before  noon,  when  a  dreadful 
thunder  clap  was  heard  at  Ensisheim,  a  child  saw  a  large 
stone  fall  on  a  field  lately  sowed  with  wheat.  On  the 


344  METEORS. 

people  going  to  the  place  the  hole  was  found,  and  digging 
out  the  stone  it  was  found  to  have  entered  three  feet 
deep  and  weighed  360  Ibs,  which  makes  its  size  equal  to 
a  cube  of  about  thirteen  inches  the  side.  No  doubt  has 
ever  been  entertained  of  this  fact ;  and  cotemporary  writ- 
ers all  agree  in  its  general  belief  by  the  neighborhood, 
and  the  natives  of  the  place  must  have  known  that  in 
their  wheat  field  no  such  stone  or  hole  had  formerly 
existed. 

In  September,  1753,  several  stones  fell,  accompanied 
with  loud  noises  in  the  province  of  Bresse,  a  little  west  of 
Geneva  ;  particularly  one  fell  at  Pont-de-Vesle,  and  one 
at  Liponas,  at  nine  miles'  distance  from  each  other.  The 
sky  was  clear,  and  the  weather  warm.  A  loud  noise  and 
hissing  sound  were  heard  at  those  two  places,  and  for 
many  miles  round,  at  the  time  the  stones  fell.  The  stones 
appeared  exactly  similar  to  each  other,  of  a  darkish,  dull 
color,  very  heavy,  and  their  surface  showing  as  if  they 
had  suffered  a  violent  degree  of  heat.  The  largest 'weigh- 
ed about  20  Ibs.,  and  penetrated  about  six  inches  into  the 
ploughed  ground  ;  a  circumstance  which  renders  it  high- 
ly improbable  that  they  could  have  existed  there  before 
the  explosion.  This  phenomenon  has  been  described  by 
the  astronomer  Delalande,  who  seems  to  have  carefully 
examined  on  the  spot  the  truth  of  the  circumstances  he 
describes. 

It  is  related  by  Paul  Lucas,  the  traveller,  that  when  he 
was  at  Larissol,  a  town  in  Greece,  near  the  gul  of  Sa- 
lonica,  a  stone  of  72  Ibs.  weight  fell  in  the  neighborhood. 
It  was  observed  to  come  from  the  northward,  with  aloud 
hissing  noise  and  seemed  to  be  enveloped  in  a  small 
cloud,  which  exploded  when  the  stone  fell.  It  looked 
like  iron  dross  and  smelled  of  sulphur. 

In  the  year  176S,  three  stones  were  presented  to  the 
Academy  of  Sciences  at  Paris,  which  had  fallen  in  dif- 
ferent parts  of  France  ;  one  at  Luce,  in  the  Maine ; 
another  at  Aire  in  the  Artois,  and  the  third  at  Cotentin. 
These  were  all  externally  of  the  very  same  appearance ; 
and  Messrs  Fougcraux,  Cadet,  and  Lavosier,  drew  up  a 
particular  report  on  the  first  of  them.  They  state,  that 
on  the  18th  of  September,  1768,  between  four  and  five, 
afternoon,  there  was  seen  near  the  village  of  Luce,  in  I»e 


METEORS.  345 

Maine,  a  cloud,  in  which  a  sharp  explosion  took  place, 
followed  by  a  hissing  noise,  but  without  any  flame ;  that 
some  persons,  about  10  miles  from  Luce,  heard  the  same 
sound  :  looking  upwards,  they  perceived  an  opaque  body, 
describing  a  curve  line  in  the  air,  and  fall  on  a  piece  of 
green  turf  near  the  high  road  ;  that  they  immediately  ran 
to  this  place,  where  they  found  a  kind  of  stone,  half  buried 
in  the  earth,  extremely  hot,  and  weighing  about  T^lbs. 

December  18,  1795,  several  persons  near  Captain 
Topham's  house  in  Yorkshire,  heard  a  loud  noise  in  the 
air,  followed  by  a  hissing  sound,  and  soon  after  felt  a 
shock  as  if  a  heavy  body  had  fallen  to  the  ground  at  a 
little  distance  from  them  ;  in  fact  one  of  them  saw  a  huge 
stone  fall  to  the  earth  at  eight  or  nine  yards  from  the 
place  where  he  stood  ;  it  was  seven  or  eight  yards  above 
the  ground  when  he  first  observed  it ;  in  its  fall  it  threw  up 
the  mould  on  every  side  and  buried  itself  twentyone  inches 
deep;  the  stone  being  raised  was  found  to  weigh  56  Ibs. 

March  17,  1798,  a  body  burning  very  brightly,  passed 
over  the  vicinity  of  Villa  Franche  on  the  Saone,  a  little  to 
the  east  of  Lyons,  in  France,  accompanied  with  a  hissing 
noise  and  leaving  a  luminous  track  behind  it.  This  phe- 
nomenon exploded  with  a  great  noise  about  1200  feet 
from  the  ground;  and  one  of  the  splinters,  still  luminous, 
being  observed  to  fall  in  a  neighboring  vineyard  was 
traced  :  at  the  spot  a  stone  was  found  about  a  foot  in  dt- 
ameter,  which  had  penetrated  twenty  inches  into  the 
ground. 

An  account  of  a  phenomenon  of  precisely  the  same  de- 
scription, was  received  from  the  East  Indies,  vouched  by 
authority  particularly  well  adapted  to  procure  general 
respect.  Mr  Williams,  F.  R.  S.  residing  in  Bengal, 
hearing  of  an  explosion  with  a  descent  of  stones,  in  the 
province  of  Bahar,  diligently  inquired  into  the  circum- 
stances among  the  Europeans  upon  the  spot.  He  learned 
that  on  December  19,  1798,  at  eight  o'clock  in  the  even- 
ing, a  large  fire  ball  or  luminous  meteor  was  seen  at 
Benares,  and  other  parts  of  the  country ;  that  it  was 
attended  with  a  loud  rumbling  noise  ;  and  that  about  the 
same  time  the  inhabitants  of  Krakhut,  fourteen  miles  from 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xiv.         31* 


346  METEORS. 

Benares,  saw  the  light,  heard  a  report  like  a  loud  thunder 
clap,  and  immediately  after  heard  the  noise  of  heavy 
bodies  falling  in  the  neighborhood.  Next  morning  the 
mould  in  the  fields  was  found  to  have  been  turned  up  in 
many  spots,  and  unusual  stones  of  various  sizes,  but  of 
the  same  substances,  were  picked  out  of  the  moist  soil, 
generally  from  a  depth  of  six  inches.  As  the  occurrence 
took  placer  in  the  night,  after  the  people  had  retired  to 
rest,  the  explosion  and  fall  of  the  stones  were  not  seen  : 
but  the  watchman  of  an  English  gentleman  near  Krakhut, 
brought  him  a  stone  the  next  morning  which  he  said  had 
fallen  through  the  top  of  his  hut,  and  buried  itself  in  the 
earthen  floor. 

It  seems  quite  impossible  to  deny  very  great  weight  to 
all  these  testimonies,  and  many  others  that  might  be  given, 
several  of  them  by  intelligent  eye  witnesses,  and  others  by 
more  ordinary  persons  indeed,  but  prepossessed  by  no  the- 
ory: all  concurring  in  these  descriptions;  and  examined 
by  acute  and  respectable  persons,  immediately  after  the 
phenomena  had  occurred.  Without  offering  any  further 
remarks  then,  on  this  mass  of  external  evidence,  we  shall 
only  just  notice  the  main  points,  which  it  seems  to  sub- 
stantiate in  a  very  satisfactory  manner.  It  proves,  then, 
that,  in  various  parts  of  the  world,  luminous  meteors  have 
been  seen  moving  through  the  air  with  surprising  rapidi- 
ty, in  a  direction  more  or  less  oblique,  accompanied  with 
a  noise,  commonly  like  the  whizzin.ii  of  a  large  shot,  fol- 
lowed by  an  explosion,  and  the  fall  of  hard,  stony,  or 
semi-metallic  masses,  in  a  heated  state.  The  constant 
whizzing  sound;  the  fact  of  stones  being  found,  similar 
to  each  other,  but  unlike  all  others  in  the  neighborhood, 
at  the  spots  towards  which  the  luminous  body,  or  its  frag- 
ments were  seen  to  more  ;  the  scattering  or  ploughing 
up  of  the  soil  in  these  spots,  always  in  proportion  to  the 
size  of  the  stones ;  the  concussion  of  the  neighboring 
ground  at  the  time  ;  and  especially  the  impinging  of  the 
stones  on  bodies  somewhat  above  the  earth,  or  lying  loose 
on  its  surface  —  are  circumstances  perfectly  well  authen- 
ticated in  these  reports  ;  proving  that  such  meteors  are 
usually  inflamed  hard  masses,  descending  rapidly  through 
the  air  to  the  earth. 


347 


The  following  table  contains  some  of  the  other  most  re- 
markable cases  of  falling  stones,  which  have  occurred, 
with  the  authorities  for  each. 


Substances. 

Where  they  fell. 

Time. 

Shower  of  stones. 

Rome. 

Before  Christ. 

Shower  of  stones.      ... 

-     Home.     -     - 

« 

Shower  of  iron.         ... 

»     Lucania. 

«« 

A  very  large  stone. 

-     Thrace.     - 

" 

Three  large  stones. 

-     Thrace.'    - 

« 

Shower  of  fire.         ... 

-     Quesnoy.    - 

January. 

Stone  of  72  Ibs. 

-     Macedonia.  • 

January. 

About  1200  stones  —  one  of  120  Ibs. 
another  of  60  Ibs. 

1     Italy.       - 

-      1510. 

Another  of  53  Ibs.     - 

-    Provence.     - 

November. 

Shower  of  sand  for  fifteen  hours. 

-     IntheAtlanti 

ic.     April. 

Shower  of  rain           - 

-     Mansfield. 

-     1658. 

The  siiue 

Pnn^nhitrpn 

1646. 

Shower  of  sulphur.    - 

-     Brunswick. 

October. 

Ditto,  of  a  viscid,  unknown  matter. 

Ireland. 

-     1659. 

Two  large  stones  weighing  20  Ibs. 

-     Bresse. 

September. 

A  stony  mass.              ... 

-     Normandy. 

-     1750. 

A  stone  of  7^  Ibs. 

Le  Maine. 

-     1768. 

A  stone.             - 

-     Artois.     - 

-     1768. 
176S 

Extensive  shower  of  stones. 

-     A  gen. 

-     1790. 

About  twelve  stones. 

Tuscany. 

-     1794. 

A  large  stone  of  50  Ibs. 

-     Yorkshire. 

-     1795. 

A  stone  of  about  20  Ibs.      - 

-     Sate. 

-     1798. 

A  stone  of  10  Ibs.      - 

-     Portugal.     - 

-     1796. 

Shower  of  stones. 

. 

-     1798. 

Shower  of  stones.       ... 

-     Bohemia. 

-     1753. 

Mass  of  iron  70  cubic  feet. 

-     America.     - 

-     1800. 

Mass  of  iron  14  quintals. 

-     Siberia.     - 

-  Very  old. 

Shower  of  stones.     -  . 

-     Barbonton. 

-     1789. 

Large  stone  of  220  Ibs. 

. 

-     1792. 

Two  stones  200  and  300  Ibs. 

-     Verona.     - 

-     1762. 

A  stone  of  20  Ibs. 

. 

-    1798. 

Several  stones  from  10  to  17  Ib?. 

Normandy. 

-     1803. 

One  curious  hypothesis  has  been  advanced  in  relation 
to  meteoric  stones,  which  we  cannot  refrain  from  noti- 
cing before  closing  our  remarks  on  this  part  of  our  sub- 
ject. We  ofi'er  it,  not  as  a  satisfactory  explanation  of  the 
phenomena,  but  as  a  specimen  of  the  ingenuity  with 
which  philosophers  have  sought  to  explain  the  wonderful 
appearances  of  nature. 

It  had  long  been  known  that  between  Mars  and  Jupi- 
ter, in  the  solar  system,  there  was  a  large  space  entirely 
unoccupied  by  any  discovered  planet.  The  attention  of 


348  METEORS. 


philosophers  was  accordingly  directed  to  this  part  of  the 
heavens,  until,  in  the  nineteenth  century,  four  very  small 
planets  were  discovered,  which  have  been  called,  from 
their  diminutive  size,  asteroids.  Their.names  are  Vesta, 
Juno,  Pallas,  Ceres.  One  of  them  is  estimated  to  be  only 
eighty  miles  in  diameter.  The  estimates,  however,  vary 
very  much. 

The  most  remarkable  circumstance,  however,  which  is 
connected  with  these  asteriods,  is  this.  They  all  have 
very  nearly  the  same  average  distance  from  the  sun,  the 
same  period  of  revolution  in  their  orbits  —  they  are  of  the 
same  density ;  that  is,  the  matter  which  composes  themes 
of  the  same  weight  —  and  in  the  points  at  which  each 
of  them  approach  the  sun,  called  their  perihelions,  and  in 
those  where  their  orbits  cross  the  elliptic,  all  the  asteroids 
agree. 

These  are  certainly  extraordinary  coincidences.  They 
have  given  rise  to  the  hypothesis  that  these  four  bodies 
were  originally  one  large  planet,  which  by  some  vast  con- 
vulsion, of  which  we  can  know  nothing  in  detail,  was 
rent  asunder,  separating  itself  into  four  large,  and  a  mul- 
titude of  small  fragments.  These  four  large  fragments, 
it  is  supposed,  continue  to  revolve  around  the  sun,  very 
nearly  in  the  place  of  the  original  revolution  of  the  whole  ; 
each  one  deviating  from  the  former  track,  according  to 
the  impulse  given  it  by  the  shock. 

But  what  connexion  has  all  this,  the  reader  will  ask, 
with  meteoric  stones?  The  theory  which  we  are  endeav- 
oring to  explain,  imagines  that  some  smaller  fragments 
from  this  fancied  explosion,  were  thrown  to  a  great  dis- 
tance from  the  original  place  of  the  planet,  and  that  many 
of  them  came  into  the  vicinity  of  our  earth,  and  that  they 
are  now  revolving  about  it,  like  satellites.  While  they 
are  moving  in  the  empty  space  beyond  the  earth's  at- 
mosphere, they  are  invisible.  They  sometimes,  however, 
are  supposed  to  dip  into  the  atmosphere,  for  their  orbits 
being  probably  very  eliptical,  they  may  at  times  ap- 
proach very  near  the  body  of  the  earth.  When  they  thus 
enter  the  earth's  atmosphere^  the  friction  of  the  air  dis- 
engages fight  and  heat.  The  former  makes  these  bodies 
visible  to  us,  and  the  latter,  the  heat,  cracks  off  portions 
of  the  revolving  body,  which  fall  to  the  earth.  The  main 


METEORS.  349 

fragment  is  then  supposed  to  pass  out  of  the  atmosphere, 
and  to  continue  its  revolution  until  again  it  approaches 
the  earth,  and  by  dipping  into  its  atmosphere,  produces 
again  the  same  effects. 

In  corroboration  of  this  hypothesis  it  may  be  said, 

1.  The  stones  which  fall  at  any  time,   are  always  very 
small,  in  comparison  with  the  observed  magnitude  of  the 
meteor  moving  through  the  air. 

2.  The  stones,  as  it  is  said,  are  always  hot,  if  examin- 
ed immediately  after  they  fall. 

3.  The  stones   are  all  similar  in  character.     It  ought 
however  to  be  added  that  their  density  is  much   greater 
than  the  mean  density  of  the  asteroids. 

4.  The  noise  which  precedes  the  falling  of  the  stones 
is  a  rapid  succession  of  reports,  like  the  irregular  discharge 
of  musketry. 

5.  The  meteor  which  is  usually  seen  before  the  fall  of 
the  stones,  has  always  a  rapid  motion,  and  that  not  in  a 
direction  towards  the  earth,   but  parallel,  or   slightly  in- 
clined to  the  horizon. 

We  do  not  offer  this  opinion  as  a  satisfactory  explana- 
tion of  the  phenomena,  nor  do  we  condemn  it  as  fanciful. 
It  is  presented  for  the  reader's  consideration. 

III.  Jgnes  Fatui.  With  the  Ignes  Fatui,  familiarly 
known  by  the  name  of  the  Will  o'  the  Wisp,  we  are  better 
acquainted  than  with  those  more  sublime  meteors  which 
ride  higher  in  the  heavens,  and  by  the  rapidity  of  their 
flight,  and  their  momentary  existence,  elude  investigation. 
To  the  ignorant  and  superstitious  the  ignes  fatui  are  a 
source  of  terror.  The  appearance  of  these  harmless 
lights  in  a  marsh  has  jnade  many  a  poor  simpleton  trem- 
ble with  fright.  But  it  would  be  just  as  wise  to  be  fright- 
ened by  the  dense  fog  which  rises  from  the  bosom  of  the 
lake,  or  to  be  appalled  by  the  cheerful  blaze  of  the  win- 
try fire.  These  luminous  bodies  are  always  seen  in 
marshy  lands.  Sometimes  they  are  caused  by  the  de- 
composition of  vegetable  substances,  forming  something 
of  the  nature  of  light  wood,  with  which  every  one  is 
acquainted.  The  light  emitted  from  these  decaying 
bodies,  and  seen  through  the  damp  exhalations  of  the 
marsh  is  magnified,  as  the  sun  when  setting  behind  a 
thin  veil  of  clouds,  expands  to  double  its  usual  apparent 


350 


METEORS. 


form.  Some  of  these  marshy  meteors  appear  to  change 
their  situation,  and  dance  about  from  place  to  place. 
They  are  composed  of  inflammable  air,  which  is  continu- 
ally evaporating  in  the  low  stagnant  grounds  where  these 
phenomena  make  their  appearance.  The  earth  is  con- 
tinually exhaling  hydrogen  gas,  phosphorus,  carbonic 
acid  gas,  and  occasionally  sulphurous  vapors.  ..These 
gases  readily  inflame  from  a  great  variety  of  natural 
causes,  to  which  they  are  perpetually  exposed.  They 
may  be  inflamed  by  electricity,  or  by  heat  generated 
during  the  decomposition  of  animal  or  vegetable  materi- 
als. Now  this  mass  of  gas  being  on  fire  will  burn  till  its 
inflammable  principle  is  destroyed.  In  proportion  to  its 
greater  or  less  degree  of  combustible  power,  it  will  pour 
forth  a  greater  or  less  degree  of  light.  From  the  levity 
of  the  burning  vapor,  it  will  wave  to  and  fro,  in  the  cur- 
rents of  the  air,  like  any  gas  light  exposed  to  the  wind  ; 
sometimes  flaming  higher  and  again  sinking  down  to  a 
feeble  flicker  ;  thus  constantly  moving  before  the  specta- 
tor, and  assuming  different  forms  and  colors,  according 
to  the  varying  density  of  the  fog  through  which  it  is  seen. 
A  friend  of  mine,  says  Rev.  John  Mitchell,  returning  from 
abroad  late  in  the  evening,  had  to  cross  a  strip  of  marsh. 
As  he  approached  the  causeway  he  noticed  a  light  to- 
wards the  opposite  end,  which  he  supposed  to  be  a  lantern 
in  the  hand  of  some  person  whom  he  was  about  to  meet. 
It  proved  however  to  be  a  solitary  flame,  a  few  inches 
above  the  marsh,  at  the  distance  of  a  few  feet  from  the 
edge  of  the  causeway.  He  stopped  some  time  to  look  at 
it,  and  was  strongly  tempted  notwithstanding  the  wariness 
of  the  place,  to  get  nearer  to  it,  for  the  purpose  of  closer 
examination.  It  was  evidently  a  vapor  issuing  from  the 
mud,  and  becoming  ignited,  or  at  least  luminous,  in  con- 
tact with  the  air.  It  exhibited  a  flickering  appearance, 
like  that  of  a  candle  expiring  in  its  socket;  alternately 
burning  with  a  large  flame,  and  then  sinking  to  a  small 
taper  ;  and  occasionally  for  a  moment  becoming  quite 
extinct.  It  constantly  appeared  over  the  same  spot. 
This  same  gentleman  remarks  that  the  locomotive  pow- 
er with  which  these  meteors  seem  to  be  endowed,  is 
probably  apparent  only,  not  real.  As  the  light  dwindles 
away,  it  will  seem  to  move  from  you,  and  with  a  velocity 


METEORS.  351 


proportioned  to  the  rapidity  of  its  diminution.  Again  as 
it  grows  larger,  it  will  appear  to  approach  you.  If  it 
expires  by  several  flickerings  or  flashes,  it  will  seem  to 
skip  from  you,  and  when  it  reappears  you  will  easily 
imagine  that  it  has  assumed  a  new  position. 

It  is  sometimes  thought  that  you  cannot  approach  an 
ignis  fatuus  ;  that  it  will  recede  as  rapidly  as  you  ad- 
vance. This  is  probably  the  effect  of  imagination.  In 
a  misty  night,  a  traveller  easily  mistakes  one  of  these 
lights,  , for  the  light  of  a  neighboring  house,  and  going  in 
pursuit  of  it,  he  finds  hedges  and  bogs  and  mire,  till  he 
i>  lead  to  the  middle  of  a  swamp.  It  is  stated  by  Mr 
Mitchell  that  a  man  left  his  neighbor's  house  late  in  the 
evening  and  at  daylight  had  not  reached  his  own,  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  distant :  at  which  his  family  being  con- 
cerned, a  number  of  persons  went  out  to  search  for  him. 
We  found  him  near  a  swamp  with  soiled  clothes,  and  a 
thoughtful  countenance,  reclining  by  a  fence:  The  ac- 
count he  gave  way,  that  he  had  been  led  into  the  swamp 
by  a  jack  o'  lantern.  His  story  was  no  doubt  true,  and 
yet  had  little  of  the  marvellous  in  it.  The  night  being 
dark,  and  the  man's  senses  a  little  disordered  withal,  by 
a  glass  too  much  of  his  neighbor's  cherry,  on  approaching 
his  house  he  saw  a  light,  and  not  suspecting  that  it  was 
not  upon  his  own  mantel,  made  towards  it.  A  bush  or 
bog  might  have  led  to  the  same  place,  if  he  had  happened 
to  take  it  for  his  chimney  top.  These  are  some  of  these 
marshy  lights  which  cannot  as  yet  be  scientifically 
explained.  But  repeated  observations  and  successive 
experiments  are  removing  one  difficulty  after  another^, 
and  the  time  may  yet  corne  when  the  science  of  meteors 
shall  be  as  simple  and  satisfactory  as  any  other  which 
elucidates  the  mvsteries  of  nature. 


AGENTS 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS 


Portland, 

Hallowell, 

Augusta, 

Bangor, 

Belfast, 


MAINE. 

Samuel  Caiman. 
C.  Spaulding. 
P.  Jt.  Brinsmo.de. 
B.  JVourse. 
JV.  P.  Hawes. 


Norway,  Asa  Barto*£ 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Dover'  j  S.'cf »««». 
Hanover,  Thomas  Mtinn. 

Concord,  Horatio  Hill  $   Co. 

Keene,  George  Tilden. 

Portsmouth,      John  W.  Foster. 

VERMONT. 
Burlington,       C.  Goodrich. 


Uurhngton,       C. 

Brattleboro',     G 

Windsor,          Simeon  Ide. 

Montpelier,       J.  S.    Walton. 

Bellows  Fulls,  James  /.  Culler  $•  Co. 

Rutland,  Wm.  Fay. 

Middlebury,      Jonathan  Hagar. 

Castleton,         B.  Burtun  2</. 

St  Albans,        L.  L.  Duecher. 
C  hester,  Charles  Whipple. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Salem,  Whipple  Sf  Laurence. 

Newburyport,  Charles   Whipple. 
Northampton,  S.  Butler  Sf  Son. 
Andover,  „!/.  JVeicman. 

Amherst,          .7.  S.  4-   C.  Adams. 
Worcester,        Dorr  Sf  Howland. 
Springfield,        Thomas  Dickman. 
New  Bedford,   A.  Shear man, Jr. Sf  Co 
Methuen,          J.  W.  Carlton  if  Co' 
Brookfield,         K.  Sf  G.  Merriam. 
RHODE  ISLAND. 

Providence,    j  ^"'^  g^,"'*'!' 

CONNECTICUT. 
Hartford,          H.  S;  F.  J.  tlunlington 
New  Haven,     A.  H.  Maltby 


Norwich,  Thomas  Robinson. 

Middtetown,       Kdwin  Hunt. 

NEW  YORK. 

New  York,          Charles  S.  Francis. 
Albany,  Little  Sf   Cummings. 

Canandaigua,     Bemis  Sf    Ward. 
Troy,  IT.  S.  Parker. 

Utica,  G.  S.  H  ilson. 

Rochester,          E.  Peck  Sf   C«. 

NEW  JERSEY. 
Trenton,  D.  Fenton. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Philadelphia,  j  ^^ 

MARYLAND", 

Baltimore,          Charles  Carter. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 
Washington,      Thompson  Sf  Homans. 


VIRGINIA. 
Frcdericksburg,  /Cm.  F.  Gray,  P.  M. 

OHIO. 

r-  p'n  ,  •  J  Phillips,Spcar(f Drake. 
Cincinnati,  j  c  J).' Bradford  if  Co. 
Columbus,  J.  JV.  Whiting. 

MISSISSIPPI. 
Natches,  F.  Briiumont. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 
Charleston,        Ebene-.er  Thayer. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 
Raleigh,  Turner  if   Hughes. 

GEORGIA. 
Savannah,          Thomas  M.  Driscoll. 

ALABAMA. 
Mobile,  Odiorne  Sf  Smith. 

LOUISIANA. 
New  Orleans,    Man,  Carroll. 

MICHIGAN  TERRITORY. 


Detroit, 


Montreal, 
Quebec, 


London, 


George  L. 
CANADA. 


Whitney. 


//.  //.  Cunningham. 
JVeilson  Sf  Cowan. 
ENGLAND. 
John  JUarden. 


PUBLISHED  BY  CARTER,  HENDEE  AND  BABCOCK, 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 


BOSTON     CLASSIC     PRESS  .....  I.     R.     BUTTS. 


V  TERMS— 24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  FI  FTY 
:IWTS. 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER    XV. 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 

IT  is  remarkable  that,  after  all  the  elaborate  investiga- 
tions of  many  writers,  the  early  biography  of  Columbus 
is  still  wanting  in  several  interesting  particulars.  As  to 
his  birth,  for  example,  it  is  only  made  to  appear  probable 
that  he  was  born  about  the  year  1435  or  1436.  The 
place  of  his  nativity,  also,  has  been  the  subject  of  as  much 
and  as  warm  contention  as  the  birth-place  of  Homer. 
The  original  and  long  settled  opinion  was  in  favor  of 
Genoa.  But  strenuous  claims  have  also  been  asserted 
by  the  Italian  States  of  Placentia  and  Piedmont :  the  for- 
mer connecting  the  navigator  with  the  household  of  his 
great  grandfather,  who  owned  a  small  property  in  a  Pied- 
montese  town  ;  and  the  latter  making  him  the  sou  of 
Dominico  Colombo,  lord  of  the  castle  of  Cucurro  in 
Montserrat.  There  has  been  a  controversy  among  the 
Genoese  themselves,  moreover  —  to  whom,  on  the  whole, 
other  claimants  have  abandoned  the  field  —  whether  he 
was  born  within  their  city,  or  in  some  one  of  six  or 
eight  villages  in  other  parts  of  their  territory.  In  one  of 
these  it  seemed  that  his  family  possessed  a  small  farm  ; 
in  another,  a  portrait  of  him  is  preserved  ;  in  a  third,  a 
public  square  once  bore  his  name.  But  the  testimony  of 
Columbus  himself  may  be  considered  decisive  of  this 
question.  In  a  will  executed  in  1498,  he  twice  speaks 
of  '  being  born  in  Genoa.'  In  the  same  instrument  he 
also  commands  his  son  to  maintain  always  in  the  city 
of  Genoa  a  person  of  his  lineage,  '  to  hold  footing  and 
rank  in  that  city  as  a  native  of  it,  so  that  he  may  have  aid 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xv.         32 


354  LIFE  OP   COLUMBUS. 

and  favor  in  that  city  in  case  of  need,  for  from  thence  I 
came,  and  there  I  was  born.1  Furthermore,  a  little  brevia- 
ry was  found  in  the  Corsini  library  at  Rome,  in  the  year 
1785,  bequeathed  '  to  his  beloved  country,  the  Republic 
of  Genoa,'  by  an  informal  codicil  executed  at  Valladolid, 
May  4th,  1506,  sixteen  days  before  his  death.  It  is  well 
observed  by  an  historian,  as  accurate  as  he  is  elegant,  that 
the  '  sentiments  which  are  manifest  in  these  passages 
would  be  without  all  object,  if  not  directed  to  the  native 
place  of  Columbus.  He  was  at  this  time  elevated  above 
petty  pride  on  the  subject.  His  renown,  he  well  knew, 
would  have  shed  lustre  on  any  hamlet ;  and  the  strong 
love  of  country  here  exhibited,  would  never  have  felt  it- 
self satisfied,  until  it  had  singled  out  the  spot  and  nestled 
down  in  the  very  cradle  of  his  infancy.' 

There  has  been  another  dispute  concerning  the  lineage 
of  the  illustrious  discoverer,  several  noble  and  ancient 
families  of  the  same  name  (in  Italian,  Colombo)  having 
advanced  various  theories  upon  the  subject.  It  is  suffi- 
cient, however,  to  say  of  these,  that  they  were  all  more  or 
'less  nearly  connected  with  each  other,  and  with  a  com- 
mon though  distant  origin  :  and  that  the  great  subject  of 
the  controversy  was  probably  connected  with  them  all. — 
It  is  well  ascertained  that  his  immediate  ancestors  were  a 
line  of  humble,  but  worthy  citizens,  living  in  Genoa, 
even  from  the  time  of  Giacomo  Colombo,  '  the  wool  card- 
er,' in  1311 ;  and  that  the  navigator's  father  was  a  man 
of  this  same  trade.  Beyond  this,  it  certainly  is  not  ne- 
cessary to  pry  into  the  rolls  of  his  genealogy.  Whether 
his  remote  ancestors  were  or  were  not  noble,  and  wheth- 
er they  did  or  did  not  keep  hawk  or  hound,  it  will  be 
glory  enough  for  his  descendants,  in  all  countries  and  in 
all  times,  that  he  transmitted  a  brilliant  and  unsullied 
name  which  he  is  known  not  to  have  inherited. 

It  need  only  be  farther  observed  of  his  family,  that  he 
was  the  eldest  of  four  children ;  the  history  of  two  of 
whom,  the  brothers  Bartholemew  and  Diego,  is  somewhat 
connected  with  his  own.  His  opportunities  of  education 
were  not  remarkable.  He  was  taught  to  read  and  write 
while  yet  a  child,  arid  his  writing  is  said  to  have  been 
so  elegant  that  he  might  at  any  time  have  earned  his 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS.  355 

bread  by  it.  He  made  proficiency  also  in  arithmetic, 
drawing,  design,  grammar,  and  the  latin  language.  But 
in  consequence  of  decided  evidences  which  he  soon  gave 
of  a  strong  passion  for  geography  and  navigation,  his  edu- 
cation was  chiefly  directed  to  these  studies.  He  was 
sent  to  a  famous  school  at  Padua,  for  a  short  time,  and 
there  instructed  in  geometry  and  astronomy,  in  addition 
to  the  studies  just  named.  Here,  the  foundation  was  laid 
in  his  mind  for  his  future  greatness ;  for  he  devoted 
himself  to  his  books  with  all  the  ardor  and  energy  of  his 
nature,  and  late  in  life  he  often  spoke  ofthis  youthful  ap- 
plication, as  a  secret  impulse  of  the  Deity,  guiding  and 
inspiring  him  in  reference  to  the  great  end  he  was  chosen 
to  accomplish.  But  he  could  have  learned  nothing  more 
at  Padua  than  the  rudiments  of  what  he  studied,  for  he 
left  that  university  while  yet  extremely  young,  and  re- 
turned to  his  father's  house  at  Genoa.  Whether  he  there 
engaged  with  him  in  wool-combing  does  not  appear.  He 
could  not,  however,  have  continued  long  in  that  employ- 
ment, as  his  nautical  life  commenced  at  the  age  of  fourteen 
years.  Upon  this  his  heart  had  been  long  set ;  and  the 
passion  was  undoubtedly  quickened,  as  well  by  the  gen- 
erally reviving  and  curious  spirit  of  the  times,  as  by  the 
peculiarly  maritime  and  adventurous  habits  of  the  Geno- 
ese citizens,  and  the  situation  of  the  city  itself. 

His  first  voyages  were  made  with  an  old  and  hardy  sea- 
captain  of  his  own  name,  who  had  acquired  considerable 
reputation  by  his  daring  cruises ;  and  who,  from  a  distant 
relationship,  probably  took  some  pains  to  initiate  the  young 
mariner  into  the  toils  of  the  ocean,  and  the  perils  of  the 
piratical  wars  then  common  in  the  Mediterranean  se%. 
He  was  engaged  also  in  an  expedition  fitted  out  in  1459, 
by  the  Duke  of  Calabria  against  Naples.  Genoa  furnished 
aid  in  money  and  ships  on  this  occasion,  and  the  vete- 
ran Colombo  probably  had  a  share  of  the  command  of  their 
forces.  This  war,  which  lasted  four  years,  was  finally 
unsuccessful ;  but  that  the  young  discoverer  rather  gained 
than  lost  honor  in  the  course  of  it  would  appear  from  his 
being  at  one  time  appointed  to  a  separate  command,  and 
despatched  on  a  hazardous  cruise,  to  cut  out  a  galley 
from  the  harbor  of  Tunis.  A  characteristic  expedient 


356  LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 

which  he  used  at  this  early  period  for  beguiling  a  discon- 
tented crew  into  a  continuation  of  the  enterprise,  by 
deceiving  them  as  to  the  ship's  course,  strongly  reminds 
us  of  the  character  which  he  subsequently  developed  in 
still  bolder  relief.  '  When  I  arrived  off  Sardinia,'  he 
writes  long  afterwards,  '  I  was  told  there  were  two  ships 
and  a  carrack  with  the  galley  ;  by  which  intelligence  my 
crew  were  so' troubled  that  they  determined  to  proceed 
no  further,  but  to  return  to  Marseilles  for  another  vessel 
and  more  people.  As  I  could  not  by  any  means  compel 
them,  I  assented  apparently  to  their  wishes,  altered  the 
point  of  the  compass,  and  spread  all  sail.  It  was  then 
evening,  and  the  next  morning  we  were  within  the  cape  of 
Carthagcna,  when  all  werejirmly  of  opinion  thatthey  were 
sailing  toioards  Marseilles?  After  this  —  though  the  ex- 
act date  is  not  known  —  he  was  concerned  in  a  naval 
exploit  of  Colombo  the  younger,  nephew  to  the  veteran, 
and  himself  so  celebrated  a  corsair,  that  the  Moorish 
mothers  are  said  to  have  frightened  their  unruly  children 
with  his  name.  It  was  an  attack  upon  four  richly  laden 
Venetian  galleys,  intercepted  by  the  corsair  on  their  re- 
turn voyage  from  Flanders.  A  desperate  engagement 
took  place  ;  the  vessels  grappled  each  other,  and  the 
crews  fought  hand  to  hand,  and  from  ship  to  ship  ;  and 
thus  the  battle  continued  from  morning  to  evening  with 
great  carnage  upon  both  sides.  The  vessel  commanded 
by  our  young  navigator  was  engaged  with  a  huge  Vene- 
tian galley.  By  means  of  hand-grenades  and  other  fiery 
missiles,  the  latter  was  wrapped  in  flames ;  and  the  two 
being  fastened  together  by  chains  and  grappling  irons, 
both  were  involved  in  the  same  fire,  and  soon  became  a 
mere  burning  mass.  The  crews  threw  themselves  into  the 
sea,  and  Columbus  to  save  himself  seized  an  oar  which  was 
floating  within  reach,  and  being  an  expert  swimmer, 
attained  the  shore,  though  five  or  six  miles  distant.  This 
action  was  fought  on  the  coast  of  Portugal:  and  such  was 
the  occasion  of  his  arrival  —  by  some  writers  it  is  said, 
his  first  arrival  —  in  the  city  of  Lisbon. 

This  was  about  the  year  1470,  when  Columbus  is  de- 
scribed as  in  the  full  vigor  of  manhood,  tall,  well  formed, 
muscular,  of  commanding  and  dignified  manners,  moder- 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS.  357 


ate  and  simple  in  apparel  and  diet,  eloquent  in  discourse, 
engaging  and  affable  with  strangers.  He  resided  in  or 
about  Lisbon  for  fourteen  years.  This  circumstance  was 
partly  owing,  no  doubt,  to  a  matrimonial  connection 
which  he  formed  with  an  Italian  cavalier's  daughter 
whom  he  met  with  in  attending  religious  services,  as  he 
did  with  scrupulous  regularity,  at  the  chapel  of  the  con- 
vent of  All-Saints.  The  father-in-law  being  dead,  the 
young  couple  lived  with  the  mother  ;  and  the  latter  soon 
perceiving  the  interest  which  Columbus  took  in  mari- 
time matters,  told  him  all  she  knew  of  the  voyages  of  her 
late  husband,  who  had  been  a  distinguished  navigator  un- 
der Prince  Henry  of  Portugal,  and  brought  him  all  his 
charts,  journals,  and  memorandums.  Columbus  devoted 
himself  with  unwearied  diligence  to  the  examination  of 
these  papers,  and  of  whatever  others  of  a  similar  nature 
he  could  obtain.  Thus  he  acquainted  himself  with  all 
the  routes  and  plans  of  the  enterprising  Portuguese.  He 
also  occasionally  joined  in  expeditions  to  the  African 
coast,  then  a  country  of  great  and  novel  interest.  Some 
other  leisure,  meanwhile,  was  devoted  to  making  maps 
and  charts,  in  which  he  finally  acquired  a  proficiency  then 
quite  rare,  and  which  assisted  him,  too,  in  the  mainte- 
nance of  his  family.  His  wife  inheriting  some  property  in 
the  recently  discovered  island  of  Porto  Santo,  he  went  to 
reside  there  with  her  for  some  time.  There,  on  the  very 
frontiers  of  discovery,  they  were  frequently  visitt  d,  no 
doubt,  by  the  African  voyagers  going  to  and  fro,  while  he 
held  daily  familiar  conversations  upon  all  the  popular 
topics  of  the  day,  with  Correo,  the  husband  of  his  wife's 
sister,  a  man  of  influence  upon  the  island  and  a  naviga- 
tor of  great  note.  This  was  a  period  of  general  excite- 
ment, and  it  is  not  wonderful  that  Columbus,  situated  as 
he  was  and  had  been,  and  with  his  ardent  temperament, 
should  enter  into  it  with  his  whole  soul. 

At  this  time  he  seems  to  have  gradually  matured  his 
theory  concerning  undiscovered  lands  in  the  west.  This 
was  founded,  1.  Upon  the  nature  of  things.  2.  The 
authority  of  learned  writers.  3.  The  reports  of  naviga- 
tors. Under  the  first  head,  he  considered  the  earth  to  be 
a  sphere,  of  which  about  one  third  still  remained  unex- 

VOL.  i.—  NO.  xv.          32* 


358  LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 

plored.  This  he  believed  was  occupied  by  a  continuation 
of  the  continent  of  Asia,  which  might  extend  so  far  as  to 
approach  the  western  shores  of  Africa  and  Europe,  within 
no  very  great  distance.  Of  course  a  navigator  would 
reach  Asia,  by  sailing  from  east  to  west,  and  would  dis- 
cover any  intervening  land.  This  reasoning  was  con- 
firmed in  the  mind  of  Columbus,  not  only  by  passages  of 
ancient  writers,  and  the  more  recent  travels  of  Mandeville 
and  Marco  Polo  in  the  east,  but  by  various  conversations 
with  African  voyagers,  Portuguese  pilots,  and  the  inhabit- 
ants of  the  lately  discovered  islands.  From  some  of  these 
he  learned  that  a  piece  of  carved  wood  had  been  picked 
up,  which  must  have  drifted  from  the  west;  and  that 
reeds  of  an  immense  size,  trunks  of  huge  pine  trees  of 
unknown  kind,  and  lastly,  the  bodies  of  two  dead  men  of 
strange  features  and  color,  had  been  cast  either  upon 
the  main  coast  or  upon  some  of  the  neighboring  islands. 
He  derived  great  additional  aid  from  the  correspondence 
of  Toscanelli,  a  learned  Florentine  ;  and  especially  from 
a  map  furnished  by  him,  in  which  the  eastern  coast  of 
Asia  was  drawn  in  front  of  the  western  coast  of  Europe, 
at  a  moderate  distance.  He  also  procured  and  perused 
carefully,  the  enthusiastic  and  vague  history  of  Polo. 
His  increasing  enterprise  is  proved  by  a  voyage  which  he 
made  in  1477,  several  hundred  miles  beyond  Iceland, 
(which  was  then  called  Thule.) 

From  the  time  when  the  theory  of  Columbus  was  matur- 
ed, it  remained  unalterably  fixed  in  his  mind  and  heart, 
and  he  never  afterwards  spoke  of  it  with  doubt,  hesitation 
or  indifference.  He  is  said  even  to  have  regarded  it  with 
superstitious  awe,  and  to  have  looked  upon  himself  as- a 
chosen  instrument  for  great  future  purposes  in  the  hand 
of  Heaven.  Several  years,  however,  elapsed,  without  any 
steps  being  taken  towards  his  ultimate  design,  owing  partly 
to  his  poverty,  and  partly  to  the  circumstance  that  the  age 
was  not  yet  prepared  for  his  theory,  or  at  least  for  attempt- 
ing to  ascertain  its  correctness.  But  the  time  was  fast 
approaching,  and  two  fortunate  events  seemed  particu- 
larly to  favor  his  scheme.  One  was  the  application  of 
the  astrolabe  to  navigation  ;  and  the  other,  the  com- 
mencement of  the  reign  of  the  enterprising  king  John  II. 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS.  359 

of  Portugal.  It  was  immediately  after  the  first  of  these 
events,  that  Columbus  proposed  his  voyage  of  discov- 
ery to  the  king.  The  latter  referred  the  proposal  to 
a  junto  of  learned  men,  who  treated  it  as  extravagant 
and  visionary ;  and  afterwards  to  a  larger  council  of 
prelates  and  men  of  science.  But  the  decision  was  still 
the  same,  though  the  objections  were  less  to  the  theory 
itself,  than  upon  the  ground  of  the  war  with  the  Moors  of 
Barbary,  and  other  enterprises  in  which  Portugal  was  al- 
ready engaged. 

Towards  the  end  of  1484,  Columbus  left  Lisbon,  with 
his  son  Diego,  as  is  generally  supposed,  for  Genoa,  and 
thence  for  Venice,  to  both  which  governments  he  renewed 
his  proposals  without  success,  while  his  brother  Bartholo- 
mew met  with  the  same  fortune  in  England.  During  the 
next  season  he  visited  Spain  for  the  first  time,  under  cir- 
cumstances not  unworthy  of  mention.  A  stranger,  on 
foot,  it  is  said,  in  humble  guise,  but  of  a  distinguished 
air,  accompanied  by  a  small  boy,  stopped  at  the  gate  of 
an  old  Franciscan  convent,  near  the  sea-port  Palos,  and 
asked  of  the  porter  a  little  bread  and  water  for  his  child. 
While  receiving  this  humble  refreshment,  the  prior  of  the 
convent,  Juan  Perez,  happening  to  pass  by,  was  struck 
with  the  stranger's  appearance,  entered  into  conversation 
with  him,  and  soon  learned  the  particulars  of  his  story. 
It  was  Columbus  and  his  son.  The  prior  was  still  more 
interested  in  the  eloquent  explanation  which  the  former 
gave  of  his  theory.  He  detained  him  as  his  guest,  there- 
fore, and  sent  for  a  learned  physician  of  Palos  to  converse 
farther  with  him.  He,  too,  was  delighted  with  Colum- 
bus ;  and  so  entirely  convinced  by  his  reasoning,  that  he 
pressed  him  to  introduce  himself  immediately  at  court, 
and  gave  him  a  letter  to  the  queen's  confessor,  Talavera, 
an  intimate  friend  of  his,  and  a  man  of  great  influence 
with  the  royal  family.  The  good  prior,  meanwhile,  took 
charge  of  the  young  Diego,  the  wife  of  Columbus  being 
at  this  time  deceased. 

Columbus  entered  the  city  of  Cordova  in  the  spring  of 
I486,  at  a  period  when  the  whole  chivalry  of  Spain  was 
gathering  together  there  for  a  final  campaign  against  the 
Moors.  This  circumstance  was  unpardonable  ;  and  dress- 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 


ed  and  introduced  as  he  was,  he  could  not  even  obtain 
an  audience  of  the  king  or  queen.  Both  of  them  soon 
left  the  city,  and  Columbus,  too  poor  to  follow  them,  re- 
sumed his  old  business  of  map-making.  Meanwhile, 
however,  he  not  only  found  leisure  to  form  a  new  con- 
nexion with  a  lady  of  whom  he  became  enamored,  but 
he  obtained  the  patronage  of  the  archbishop  of  Toledo, 
by  whom  he  finally  procured  an  introduction  at  court. 
Columbus  modestly,  but  eloquently,  explained  his  project 
to  the  king,  and  the  result  was  left  to  the  decision  of  a 
council  of  learned  men  at  Salamanca.  Before  them  the 
navigator  accordingly  appeared,  not  daunted  or  dispirit- 
ed, but  with  an  elevated  demeanor,  an  air  of  authority,  a 
firm  voice  and  a  kindling  eye.  Some  of  them  were  in- 
terested warmly  in  his  favor ;  but  the  majority  decided 
against,  and  even  ridiculed  and  reproached  him.  The 
objections  made  to  his  theory  are  curious  illustrations  of 
the  state  of  science  at  that  period.  His  clear  and  sound 
philosophy  was  overwhelmed  by  the  writings  of  saints. 
Lactantius  was  quoted  to  prove  that  the  antipodes  are  an 
inconceivable  absurdity  inasmuch  as  people  cannot  walk 
with  their  heels  up  and  their  heads  down,  nor  trees 
grow,  nor  rain  and  hail  fall  upward.  To  say  that  there 
were  inhabited  lands  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  earth, 
would  imply  too  that,  there  were  nations  not  descended 
from  Adam,  it  being  impossible  for  men  to  pass  the  inter- 
vening ocean.  Besides,  the  heavens  were  compared  in 
Scripture  to  a  tent,  and  the  inference  was  that  the  earth 
underneath  was  flat.  And  then,  should  a  ship  ever  reach 
Asia  by  sailing  westward,  it  was  clear  as  daylight,  they 
said,  that  he  could  never  get  back  again  ;  for  the  rotundity 
of  the  globe  would  make  the  return- voyage  altogether 
an  up-hill  cruise. 

But  the  king  not  considering  this  opinion  of  the  coun- 
cil decisive,  Columbus  was  induced  to  linger  about  the 
court  for  nearly  seven  years,  (while  the  war  lasted,) 
when  he  returned  to  the  old  convent  of  Palos,  resolved 
upon  leaving  the  country  forever.  But  here  he  was 
again  befriended  by  the  good  prior  and  the  physician, 
the  former  of  whom  insisted  on  writing  to  queen  Isabella. 
This  measure  was  adopted  ;  and  Columbus  soon  after  re- 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS.  361 


ceived  an  invitation  to  attend  court,  with  a  present 
of  about  §'200,  wherewith  to  bear  his  travelling  expenses, 
improve  his  dress,  and  provide  himself  a  mule  for  the 
journey.  All  this  was  done  promptly,  and  Columbus 
appeared  before  Ferdinand  and  Isabella.  His  proposals 
were  heard  with  attention,  but  his  terms  being  consider- 
ed unsatisfactory  and  he  refusing  any  concession  of  what 
he  considered  his  dignity,  the  interview  ended  with  dis- 
gust upon  his  part,  and  he  immediately  turned  his  back 
upon  the  court,  once  more  determined  to  abandon  it  for- 
ever. He  had  gone  about  two  leagues  from  Granada,  when 
he  was  overtaken  and  summoned  back  by  a  courier  of 
the  queen,  who,  upon  better  reflection  and  at  the  instance 
of  a  warm  patron  of  Columbus,  had  determined  in  his  fa- 
vor. An  arrangement  was  now  readily  effected,  execu- 
ted April  17,  1492,  by  which  Columbus  and  his  suc- 
cessors forever  were  to  hold  the  office  of  Admiral  in  the 
countries  to  be  discovered ;  should  reserve  to  himself  a 
tenth  part  of  the  wealth  ;  and  might  contribute  an  eighth 
of  the  expense  of  outfits.  An  order  was  issued  for 
the  preparation  of  two  vessels  at  Palos  ;  and  for  that 
port,  the  weary  but  successful  adventurer,  now  in  the  fifty- 
sixth  year  of  his  age,  once  more  started  on  the  ensuing 
sixteenth  of  May. 

Nearly  three  months  were  consumed  in  preparing  the 
expedition  now  determined  on,  owing  in  a  large  deirree  to 
its  unpopularity  ;  nor  was  it  until  early  in  the  morning  of 
August  ^d,  that  Columbus  set  sail,  after  solemn  religious 
ceremonies,  with  his  three  small  vessels,  and  120  men- 
He  had  drawn  an  improved  map  of  the  world,  in  which 
Japan,  the  Cipango  of  Marco  Polo,  was  nearly  in  the 
real  situation  of  Florida.  The  first  land  made  by  the 
little  squadron  was  the  Canary  Islands,  where  various 
circumstances  detained  them  over  three  weeks.  Other 
difficulties  awaited  him  in  the  fears  of  his  crew,  many  of 
the  most  rugged  of  whom  broke  into  loud  lamentations 
upon  losing  sight  of  the  islands,  and  launching  forth  in- 
to an  unknown  ocean.  Others  became  mutinous  after 
the  voyage  had  continued  some  weeks.  But  Columbus 
was  not  to  to  be  turned  from  his  purpose.  He  kept  a  se- 
rene countenance  on  all  occasions  ;  and  soothed,  stimu- 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 


lated,  and  threatened  his  ignorant  and  superstitious  crew, 
as  they  occasionally  required  it.  He  sustained  their  hopes 
also  by  directing  their  attention  from  time  to  time,  to 
large  patches  of  weeds  drifting  on  the  water,  from  the 
west ;  to  land-birds,  whales,  shore-fish,  and  every  other  ap- 
pearance of  a  neighboring  continent  or  island.  On  the 
25th  of  September,  as  two  of  the  vessels  were  sailing 
gently  together  side  by  side,  Columbus  was  startled  by  a 
shout  from  the  Pinta,  and  looking  up  he  beheld  Pinzon, 
the  captain  of  that  caravel,  mounted  on  the  stern  of  his  ves- 
sel, and  crying  with  a  loud  voice,  'Land  !  Land  !  Se- 
nor,  I  claim  my  reicard!'  (a  pension  of  thirty  crowns 
promised  by  the  sovereign,  to  the  first  who  should  see 
land.)  He  pointed  at  the  same  time  to  the  southwest, 
where  there  was  indeed  an  appearance  of  land  at  a  great 
distance.  The  enthusiasm  raised  by  this  incident  was 
unbounded.  Columbus  fell  upon  his  knees  and  returned 
thanks  to  God  ;  and  Pinzon  repeated  the  Gloria  in  Excel- 
szs*in  which  he  was  loudly  joined  by  the  crews  of  both  ves- 
sels. The  light  of  the  next  morning,  however,  put  an  end 
to  their  hopes,  for  the  fancied  coast,  which  was  nothing 
more  than  an  evening  cloud,  vanished  during  the  night.- 
They  were  now  dejected  and  mutinous  again.  But  the 
signs  of  approaching  land  soon  became  too  numerous 
and  plain  to  be  mistaken.  The  evening  of  October  llth, 
after  the  mariners  of  the  admiral's  ship  had  sung  the 
vesper  hymn  to  the  Virgin,  as  usual,  he  collected  them 
together,  addressed  them  impressively,  assured  them  that 
they  should  make  land  that  very  night,  and  promised  a 
velvet  doublet,  in  addition  to  the  king's  pension,  to  whom- 
soever should  make  the  discovery. 

Not  an  eye  was  closed  that  night,  on  board  either  of 
the  vessels.  All  was  enthusiastic  expectation.  As  the 
evening  darkened,Columbus  himself  took  his  station  upon 
the  top  of  the  castle  or  cabin  on  the  high  poop  of  his  vessel, 
and  there  maintained  hour  after  hour  an  anxious  and  in- 
cessant watch.  Suddenly,  about  10  o'clock,  he  thought 
he  beheld  a  light  glimmering  at  a  distance.  Distrusting 
the  eagerness  of  his  own  hopes,  he  called  one  of  his 

*  Glory  in  the  Highest. 


LIFE    OP    COLUMBUS.  363 


friends,  and  demanded  of  him  whether  he  saw  a  light 
in  that  direction  ;  the  latter  replied  in  the  affirmative  ;  but 
Columbus,  determined  to  be  well  satisfied,  called  another, 
and  made  the  same  inquiry.  Before  this  third  person  could 
ascend  the  round-house,  however,  the  light  had  disap- 
peared, though  it  was  seen  once  or  twice  afterwards  in 
sudden  and  transient  gleams,  borne  to  and  fro  upon  trie 
shore.  They  continued  their  course  until  two  in  the 
morning,  when  a  gun  from  the  Pinta,  the  best  sailer  of  the 
squadron,  gave  the  joyful  signal  of  land,  which  could 
now  be  clearly  seen  about  six  miles  distant.  It  was  discov- 
ed  by  a  common  mariner,  but  the  reward  was  afterwards 
adjudged  to  the  admiral  for  having  previously  perceived  the 
light.  The  vessels  now  lay  to,  and  waited  for  day-break. 
That  hour  soon  came,  though  slowly  to  those  who 
awaited  it,  and  a  new  and  beautiful  scene  unveiled  it- 
self before  the  eyes  of  the  voyagers.  A  long  island 
was  before  them,  covered  with  splendid  verdure,  spotted 
with  magnificent  trees  like  a  continual  orchard,  sending 
out  fresh  sweet  odors  upon  the  gale,  and  surrounded  by 
a  calm  sea  of  transparent  clearness.  Columbus  entered 
his  own  boat,  richly  attired  in  scarlet,  with  the  stan- 
dard of  Spain  in  his  hand  ;  while  Pinzon  and  his  brother, 
the  commanders  of  the  two  caravels,  put  offin  company 
in  their  boats,  each  bearing  the  banner  of  the  enter- 
prise emblazoned  with  a  green  cross,  and  having  on  each 
side  the  initials  of  the  two  Castilian  monarchs.  No 
sooner  did  they  land  than  Columbus  threw  himself  upon 
his  knees,  kissed  the  earth,  and  with  tears  of  gratitude 
returned  thanks  to  Heaven.  The  whole  company  fol- 
lowed his  example.  He  then  took  solemn  possession  of 
the  soil  in  the  name  of  the  king  and  queen,  named  the 
island  San  Salvador,  and  called  upon  all  present  to  ac- 
knowledge his  own  authority  as  admiral.  The  feelings 
of  the  crew  on  landing,  burst  forth  in  the  most  extrava- 
gant transports.  They  pressed  about  the  admiral,  em- 
braced him,  kissed  his  hands,  and  implored  his  forgive- 
ness for  all  the  trouble  they  had  caused  him.  The  na- 
tives of  the  island,  meanwhile,  recovering  from  the  terror 
which  the  first  appearance  of  the  Spaniards  and  their 
vessels  had  occasioned,  gradually  and  silently  drew  nearer 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 


to  them,  and  gazed  at  the  persons  and  proceedings  of  the 
new-comers  with  looks  of  profound  awe,  and  with  signs 
of  adoration.  Finding  themselves  unharmed,  they  con- 
tinued to  advance,  and  examine  the  hands,  beards,  and 
faces  of  the  Spaniards  more  closely,  Columbus  treating 
them  with  a  benignity,  which  soon  won  their  entire  confi 
dence.  The  colored  caps,  glass  beads,  and  hawk  bells, 
which  he  distributed  among  them,  they  received  as 
inestimable  gifts,  hanging  the  beads  on  their  necks,  and 
leaping  with  joy  at  the  sound  of  the  bells.  The  shore 
was  again  thronged  with  them  the  next  morning.  Fear- 
less of  the  ships,  which  had  at  first  seemed  to  them  mon- 
sters of  the  deep,  numbers  of  them  came  swimming  off 
towards  them;  and  others  embarked  in  long  light  canoes, 
bailed  with  calabashes,  and  dexterously  managed  with 
paddles.  Anything  and  everything,  even  fragments  of 
glass,  they  received  from  the  Spaniards  as  divine  gifts,  and 
cheerfully  gave  particles  of  their  own  in  return  ;  among 
other  things,  parrots,  large  balls  of  cotton-yarn  and  cakes 
of  a  kind  of  bread  called  cassava,  made  of  a  great  root. 
One  of  them  was  at  another  time  detained  on  board  the 
admiral's  vessel,  for  the  purpose  of  conciliating  him  and 
his  countrymen,  though  somewhat  against  his  own  will. 
Columbus  put  a  colored  cap  on  his  head,  strings  of 
green  beads  around  his  arms,  and  hawks  bells  in  his 
ears ;  and  then  dismissed  him  to  return  to  the  shore,  and 
be  surrounded  and  admired  by  his  countrymen.  After 
this,  Columbus  continued  his  cruise,  and  discovered  the 
Bahama  isles  and  the  island  of  Cuba,  delighted  to  en- 
thusiasm, as  his  crew  also  were,  with  the  rich  and  glowing 
scenery,  the  verdure,  the  perfume,  the  music  of  innumer- 
able birds,  the  glancing  light  from  the  scales  of  many, 
colored  myriad  fish  in  the  clear  water,  the  massy  mag- 
nificence of  the  forests,  and  the  simplicity  and  gentleness 
of  the  natives  ;  only  one  of  the  habits  of  these  people 
surprised  them.  Several  of  them  were  seen  going  about 
with  fire-brands  in  their  hands,  and  certain  dried  herbs, 
which  they  rolled  up  in  a  leaf,  and  lighting  one  end,  put 
the  other  in  their  mouth  and  puffed  out  the  smoke.  This, 
it  seems,  was  a  tobacco,  the  name  being  originally  given 
to  the  roll,  and  since  transferred  to  the  plant. 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS.  365 

Off  the  island  of  Hispaniola,  soon  afterwards  discover- 
ed and  coasted  by  Columbus,  he  had  the  misfortune  to  be 
wrecked ;  and  having  before  this  parted  company  with 
one  of  the  two  caravels  he  was  obliged  to  establish 
himself  and  his  crew  for  some  lime  upon  the  shore,  where 
the  natives  treated  them  with  all  possible  kindness.  The 
sailors  became  so  fond  indeed,  of  the  romantic  and 
easy  life  which  they  passed  in  this  beautiful  island,  with 
these  happy  people,  that  a  large  number  of  them  volun- 
teered to  settle  there  while  Columbus  should  return  to  Eu- 
rope. This  proposal  was  finally  agreed  upon  ;  a  fort  was 
built  of  the  wrecked  vessel ;  stocked  with  its  guns,  stores 
and  ammunition ;  and  manned  by  thirtyfive  volunteers, 
among  whom  were  aphysician,  a  carpenter,  caulker,  cooper, 
tailor  and  gunner.  Articles  were  also  left  for  trade. 
Having  made  all  these  arrangements,  and  given  very  full 
instructions  and  advice,  Columbus  sailed  from  the  island 
Jan.  6,  1493,  on  his  voyage  for  Spain.  Pinzon  joined 
him  soon  afterwards.  The  most  remarkable  incident 
of  the  passage  was  a  storm  of  more  than  two  days'  duration, 
and  of  such  extreme  violence,  that  the  fate  of  the  two 
vessels  seemed  for  a  time  inevitable.  In  this  extremity 
many  were  the  vows  made  on  board,  of  pilgrimages, 
watchings,  processions  and  penitence.  But  the  tempest 
grew  more  terrific ;  and  the  danger  of  the  ship  was  aug- 
mented by  the  want  of  ballast  causing  her  to  roll  and 
toss  about  at  the  swelling  of  the  waves.  The  admiral 
partially  remedied  this  evil  by  having  all  the  empty  casks 
on  board  filled  with  sea-water,  this  measure  gave  some 
relief;  but  Columbus  had  other  and  peculiar  causes  of 
anxiety,  and  above  all  the  gloomy  apprehension  that 
with  him  and  his  comrades,  the  memory  and  the  immortal 
glory  which  belonged  to  him  would  be  lost  forever. 
With  this  feeling,  he  hastily  wrote  a  brief  account  of  his 
voyage  on  parchment;  sealed  and  directed  it  to  the  king 
and  queen,  with  a  promise  superscribed  of  1000  ducats 
to  him  who  should  bear  it  safely  to  their  hands;  then 
wrapped  it  in  a  waxed  cloth,  which  he  placed  in  the  centre 
of  a  cake  of  wax;  and  inclosing  the  whole  in  a  barrel, 
threw  it  into  the  sea.  To  insure  his  object,  a  copy 
inclosed  in  the  same  manner,  was  placed  upon  the 

VOL.    I. NO.    XV.  33 


•366  LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 


poop  of  his  vessel .  Happily,  neither  of  these  memorials 
was  ever  needed,  for  the  storm  abated  towards  evening, 
and  early  the  next  day,  land  was  made  among  the  Azores. 
The  little  squadron  arrived  off  the  mouth  of  the  Tagus 
on  the  4th  of  March,  and  in  this  vicinity  Columbus  re- 
mained, till  May  13th,  the  object  of  universal  curiosity 
and  of  very  general  admiration  and  respect.  Barges  and 
boats  of  every  kind,  full  of  spectators  and  visiters,  cover- 
ed the  bosom  of  the  Tagus.  All  hung  with  wrapt  atten- 
tion on  the  story  told  by  the  voyagers,  and  gazed  with  un- 
bounded wonder  upon  the  Indians  and  the  specimens  of 
unknown  plants  and  animals  they  had  brought  with  them. 
Even  the  king  invited  the  admiral  to  an  interview,  and 
though  evidently  mortified  at  his  own  want  of  an  inter- 
est in  his  glorious  expedition,  treated  him  with  the  atten- 
tion due  to  his  high  rank  and  his  unsullied  character. 
The  latter  was  not  long  detained,  however,  in  Portugal. 
He  reernbarked  on  the  13th  of  March,  and  entered  the  har- 
bor of  Palos,  on  the  18th,  amid  the  ringing  of  bells,  and 
the  loud  shouts  of  the  whole  populace  of  that  neighbor- 
hood. The  fame  of  his  discovery  had  resounded  over 
all  Spain;  and  wherever  he  passed  on  his  way  to  the 
royal  residence  at  Barcelona,  the  village-roads  were  lined 
with  people,  and  the  streets,  windows  and  balconies  of 
the  large  towns  crowded  with  eager  spectators,  rending 
the  air  with  their  acclamations.  His  reception  at  Barce- 
lona was  still  more  magnificent.  Escorted  by  large  num- 
bers of  young  courtiers  and  gallant  cavaliers,  and  fol- 
lowed by  an  immense  populace,  he  entered  that  noble  city 
with  almost  the  pomp  and  splendor  of  a  Roman  tri- 
umph. First  in  the  march  were  paraded  the  Indians, 
painted  and  decorated  in  their  native  style.  After  these 
were  carried  various  kinds  of  live  parrots,  stuffed  birds 
and  animals  of  unknown  species,  rare  plants,  and  a  rich 
display  of  Indian  coronets,  bracelets,  pearls,  gems  and 
gold.  Then  came  Columbus,  with  his  splendid  escort 
in  long  array  around  and  behind  him.  Countless  multi- 
tudes crowded  the  streets  wherever  they  passed;  the 
windows  and  balconies  were  filled,  and  even  the  roofs  of 
the  houses  covered  with  spectators.  In  this  manner  Co- 
lumbus approached  the  throne  of  his  sovereign,  and  they 


LIFE    OP    COLUMBUS.  3G7 

rose  as  he  drew  near.  Kneeling  down,  he  requested 
to  kiss  their  hands;  they  then  raised  him  in  the  most  gra- 
cious manner,  and  ordered  him  to  seat  himself  in  their 
presence,  and  relate  his  adventures.  This  done,  they 
sunk  on  their  knees,  wept  with  joy,  and  gave  thanks  to 
God  ;  and  the  whole  of  the  vast  multitude  present,  with  a 
common  emotion,  followed  their  example.  Such  was  the 
reception  of  Columbus!  Such  the  celebration  of  the  most 
sublime  discovery  recorded  in  the  annals  of  the  world ! 

In  the  ensuing  year,  a  second  expedition  was  fitted 
out  for  Columbus,  consisting  of  seventeen  vessels  and 
fifteen  hundred  men,  including  large  numbers  of 
young,  noble  and  enthusiastic  volunteers.  They  sailed 
before  sunrise  on  the  twentyfifth  of  September,  1493, 
from  the  Bay  of  Cadiz.  In  the  evening  of  the  twentysecond 
of  November,  after  a  winding  cruise  among  several  new- 
ly-discovered islands,  they  arrived  at  the  harbor  of  the 
fort,  named  La  Navidad,  and  anchored  a  league  from  the 
land.  Here,  impatient  to  know  at  least  that  the  garrison 
were  living,  Columbus  ordered  a  cannon  to  be  fired ;  the 
report  echoed  along  the  shore,  but  there  was  no  reply;  no 
shout  was  heard ;  no  light  was  seen ;  all  was  darkness  and 
death-like  silence.  At  midnight,  a  canoe  was  seen  cau- 
tiously to  approach  the  fleet.  Those  who  paddled  it,  how- 
ever, would  not  go  on  board  even  of  the  admiral's  ship,  un- 
til Columbus  showed  himself  with  a  light  at  the  side  of 
the  vessel.  By  their  confused  accounts,  and  by  subse- 
quent sources  of  information,  it  appeared  that  the  unfor- 
tunate garrison  had  neglected  the  admiral's  advice,  and 
had  suffered  the  consequences  of  their  imprudence.  The 
avarice  of  some,  and  the  sensuality  of  others,  occasioned 
quarrels  with  the  natives,  while  jealousy  and  ambition 
embittered  them  against  each  other.  The  results  were 
combinations,  factions,  brawls,  war,  and  at  last  sudden 
destruction  by  the  hands  of  the  enraged  and  disgusted 
natives.  Such  was  the  history  of  the  first  European 
settlement  in  the  new  world. 

But,  discouraging  as  it  was,  it  became  necessary  to  un- 
dertake a  second  one;  and  for  this  purpose  a  site  was  se- 
lected upon  the  same  island  (Hispaniola)  at  a  place  where 
two  rivers,  a  green  and  beautiful  plain  between  them,  and 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 


a  spacious  harbor,  gave  promise  of  a  more  fortunate  desti- 
ny. Here,  too,  the  soil  was  fertile,  the  climate  genial ;  the 
trees  were  in  leaf,  the  shrubs  flowered,  and  the  birds  sing- 
ing, though  it  was  the  middle  of  December.  The  settle- 
ment was  immediately  undertaken.  An  encampment  was 
formed  upon  the  plain  ;  the  cattle,  horses,  stores,  guns 
and  everything  on  board  the  vessels  was  conveyed  ashore  ; 
streets  and  squares,  gardens  and  orchards  projected ;  and 
the  greatest  diligence  used  in  erecting  a  church,  a  store- 
house, and  residence  for  the  admiral,  of  stone,  beside  a 
number  of  wooden  and  reed  houses  for  the  multitude  at 
large.  The  greater  part  of  the  fleet,  meanwhile,  sailed 
for  Spain  on  the  2d  of  February,  1494. 

From  this  time  commenced  the  troubles  of  Columbus. 
Many  of  his  ardent  followers  were  already  disappointed  in 
their  extravagant  expectations  of  wealth  and  glory  ;  and 
the  same  heat  and  moisture  which  fertilized  the  soil  they 
had  settled  on,  soon  proved  fatal  to  themselves.  Pro- 
visions grew  scarce,  and  labor  became  necessary  ;  but 
the  cavaliers  were  both  indolent  and  ill-humored,  and 
thus  controversy  and  jealousies  arose  between  them  and 
Columbus,  which  lasted  during  their  and  his  whole  life. 
To  quiet  them  for  a  time,  however,  he  undertook  various 
exploring  expeditions  into  the  interior,  and  also  voyages 
upon  the  neighboring  seas.  Jamaica  was  discovered,  and 
that  island  and  others  already  known  were  more  tho- 
roughly explored  —  the  admiral  himself  sharing  with  his 
humblest  companions,  during  all  this  time,  the  utmost  of 
their  privations  and  labors,  in  addition  to  his  own  pecu- 
liar and  poignant  anxieties,  of  which  they  could  not  even 
form  a  conception.  Indeed  so  completely  was  he  worn 
out,  on  his  return  in  September  to  his  new  settlement, 
(named  Isabella  in  honor  of  the  Queen)  as  to  be  car- 
ried on  shore  at  that  place  in  a  stale  of  lethargy  resem- 
bling death  itself,  deprived  of  sight,  of  memory  and  of  all 
his  faculties. 

His  history  between  this  period  and  the  ensuing  spring 
may  be  passed  over  with  the  remark,  that  his  brother 
Bartholomew  arrived  from  Europe,  meanwhile,  to  comfort 
and  assist  him  in  the  difficulties  which  still  beset  him  up- 
on all  sides.  Not  the  least  of  these  was  a  war  with  the 


LIFE    OP    COLUMBUS.  369 

natives  in  the  interior,  and  this  had  now  advanced  so  far 
upon  their  part,  early  in  March,  1795,  that  tljey  were  ac- 
tually assembled  in  great  force  within  two  days'  march  of 
Isabella,  and  were  preparing  for  a  general  and  overwhelm- 
ing assault  upon  the  settlement.  Columbus,  now  recov- 
ering from  his  sickness,  determined  to  meet  this  move- 
ment in  its  first  stages,  though  the  whole  force  of  his  col- 
ony did  not  exceed  two  hundred  infantry  and  twenty  horse. 
These,  however,  were  disciplined  soldiers,  cased  in  steel, 
covered  with  bucklers,  and  well  armed  with  cross-bows, 
swords,  lances,  and  heavy  arquebusses,  which  were  in 
those  days  used  with  rests,  and  sometimes  mounted  on 
wheels.  They  had  twenty  blood-hounds  trained,  strong, 
and  terribly  ferocious.  Columbus  began  his  march  on 
the  24th  of  the  month,  and  in  two  or  three  days  came 'in 
sight  of  the  enemy,  collected  in  immense  numbers  at  the 
place  where  St  Jago  has  since  been  built.  He  immedi- 
ately adopted  the  plan  of  attacking  them  in  various  direc- 
tions, with  a  great  din  of  drums  and  trumpets,  and  a  deadly 
discharge  of  the  infantry  fire-arms  from  the  covert  of  the 
trees.  A  charge  was  then  made  by  the  horse,  with  lance 
and  sabre ;  while  the  blood-hounds  let  loose  upon  the 
naked  savages,  seized  them  by  the  throat,  dragged  them 
to  the  earth,  and  despatched  them  with  a  terrific  violence. 
The  Indians  were  panic-struck,  and  fled  in  all  directions  ; 
nor  was  any  resistance  ever  afterwards  attempted  by  them, 
though  thousands  wandered  and  perished,  from  month 
to  month,  among  the  remote  fastnesses  and  wilds  of  the 
island. 

Meanwhile,  intrigues,  arising  from  jealousy  and  envy, 
were  going  on  against  Columbus  in  the  court  of  Spain,  to 
such  an  extent  that  the  King  and  Queen  thought  proper 
to  send  out  an  agent,  named  Aguado,  for  the  express 
purpose  of  ascertaining  the  truth  or  falsehood  of  the 
charges  made  against  the  Admiral.  This  agent  arrived 
at  Isabella  in  the  fall  of  1495  ;  and  Columbus,  after  en- 
during some  insolence  from  him  with  astonishing  dignity 
and  calmness,  resolved  to  return  with  him  to  Spain. — 
They  sailed,  accordingly,  on  the  10th  of  March,  1496, 
and  arrived  at  Cadiz  on  the  llth  of  June.  Columbus 
was  'at  this  time  so  dejected,  that  he  had  suffered  his 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xv.         33* 


370  LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 

beard  to  grow  in  the  manner  of  Franciscan  monks,  and 
had  clad  himself  in  a  garb  fashioned  and  colored  like 
theirs,  girded  only  with  a  cord.  Nor  was  he  much  anima- 
ted by  the  indifferent  reception  which  he  met  with,  gen- 
erally, among  his  misinformed  and  fickle  countrymen. — 
His  sovereigns,  indeed,  received  him  graciously,  and  even 
kindly  ;  and  yet  their  exertions,  situated  as  Spain  then 
was,  were  insufficient  to  raise  a  third  expedition  for 
him  until  the  spring  of  1498.  On  the  30th  of  May  in  that 
year,  still  undiscouraged  by  all  his  disappointments  and 
distresses,  he  sailed  westward  once  more  with  a  squad- 
ron of  six  vessels.  In  the  course  of  this  voyage  he  dis- 
covered Trinidad,  and  navigated  the  Gulf  of  Paria  to  a 
great  extent,  in  the  expectation  of  arriving  at  the  end  of 
what  he  considered  a  large  island.  Disappointed  in  this 
hope,  worn  down  with  labor  and  hardships,  parched  with 
fever,  racked  by  gout  —  but  not  even  now  less  sanguine 
than  ever  before  —  he  returned  to  Isabella  again,  hag- 
gard, emaciated  and  almost  blind.  The  troubles  here,  a 
series  of  factions  and  mutinies  of  the  most  insolent  and 
violent  character  —  the  same  which  had  constantly  harass- 
ed his  brother  Bartholomew  during  his  absence  —  now  de- 
volved upon  him  ;  nor  was  it  until  the  year  1490  that  any- 
thing like  harmony  and  order  could  be  restored  among 
the  colonists. 

At  this  time  new  disasters  were  ready  to  overwhelm 
him,  for  the  intrigues  against  him  in  Spain  had  been  re- 
sumed with  increased  bitterness.  The  effect  was  that  a 
new  agent,  Don  Francisco  de  Bobadilla,  —  an  arrogant 
and  unprincipled  man,  but  entrusted  nevertheless  with 
large  authority  —  was  sent  out  to  investigate  the  charges 
against  the  admiral,  and  to  treat  him  according  to  the 
result,  in  a  great  degree  as  he  might  himself  think  prop- 
er. Bobadilla  went  far  beyond  Aguado  in  his  insolence, 
for,  he  not  only  assumed  absolute  authority  upon  his  ar- 
rival in  the  island,  but  proceeded  to  quiet  all  opposition, 
real  or  imaginary,  by  force ;  summoned  Columbus  to  ap- 
pear before  him  ;  put  him  and  his  brother  in  chains  ;  and 
in  October  of  the  same  season  sent  them  for  trial  to 
Spain,  shackled  like  the  vilest  culprits,  and  amidst  the 
scoffs  and  shouts  of  a  servile  and  disorderly  populace. 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS.  371 

But  neither  the  people  nor  the  sovereigns  of  Spain 
were  prepared  for  this  step  :  and  upon  the  arrival  of  Co- 
lumbus on  the  shores  of  that  kingdom  in  the  condition 
just  mentioned,  a  universal  burst  of  indignation  was  excit- 
ed. The  king  and  queen,  too,  received  the  admiral,  now 
liberated,  with  a  kindness  which  overcame  him  more  than 
all  his  calamities  ;  he  threw  himself  upon  his  knees  before 
them,  and  for  some  time  could  not  utter  a  word  for  the 
violence  of  his  tears  and  sobbings.  But  gracious  as  they 
were,  and  respectfully  as  they  listened  to  his  request  that 
preparations  might  be  made  for  a  fourth  expedition  under 
his  command,  various  obstacles  stood  in  his  way,  as  usual, 
not  the  least  of  which  was  probably  a  suppressed  jeal- 
ousy of  the  king.  But  an  armament  was  at  last  com- 
pleted, consisting  of  four  small  caravels  and  one  hundred 
and  fifty  men  :  and  the  admiral,  with  his  brother  and  son, 
leaving  Cadiz  once  more,  in  May,  1502,  arrived  upon  the 
shores  of  San  Domingo  about  the  last  of  June.  Here, 
notwithstanding  the  apparent  approach  of  a  storm,  Bo- 
badilla's  successor,  the  governor  of  the  Colony,  refused 
him  even  shelter  for  his  vessels,  a  measure  attributed  by 
some  writers  to  the  circumstances  that  large  numbers  of 
the  colonists  were  at  this  time  the  inveterate  enemies  of 
the  admiral,  and  mij?ht  be  expected  to  treat  him  with 
violence.  His  excellent  seamanship  saved  him,  however r 
from  the  storm y  terrible  as  it  was  ;  while  Bobadilla  and 
many  others  of  his  worst  enemies  who  had  rashly  em- 
barked for  Spain,  regardless  of  his  prediction,  with  all 
the  ill-gotten  wealth  with  which  they  loaded  their  vessels, 
were  overwhelmed,  and  perished  in  the  strife  of  the  ele- 
ments. After  this,  the  admiral  coasted  along  the  shores 
of  Honduras,  the  Musquito  coast,  and  Costa  Rica  in  the 
vain  hope  of  discovering  a  strait  between  North  and  South 
America.  Meanwhile,  he  discovered  Porto-Bellor  explor- 
ed various  sections  of  the  main  land,  and  attempted  the 
formation  of  a  settlement.  Compelled  after  incredible  ex- 
ertions and  sufferings  to  abandon  these  projects,  he  return- 
ed towards  Jamaica  ;  nothing  being  now  left  of  his  sea- 
stores  but  a  little  oil,  biscuit,  and  vinegar,  while  his  men 
were  obliged  to  labor  incessantly  at  the  pumps  to  keep 
their  crazy  vessel  from  sinking.  In  this  condition,  they 


372  LIFE    Of    COLUMBUS. 

anchored  among  a  cluster  of  isles  south  of  Cuba,  call- 
ed the  Queen's  Garden,  May  30th,  1503.  Here,  a  sud- 
den tempest  came  on  at  midnight,  with  such  violence 
that,  as  Columbus  himself  writes,  'it  seemed  as  if  the 
world  would  dissolve.'  The  seas  ran  mountain  high  ;  and 
the  winds  dashed  the  vessels  against  each  other  in  such  a 
manner  that,  had  darkness  continued  an  hour  longer, 
they  must  all  have  inevitably  gone  to  the  bottom.  As  it 
was,  they  were  hardly  able  to  continue  the  voyage  east- 
ward, their  anchors  being  lost,  the  vessels  '  bored  as  full 
of  holes  as  a  honey-comb,'  and  the  leaks  gaining  upon 
them  so  that  not  only  the  pumps,  but  buckets  and  kettles, 
were  incessantly  used  in  bailing.  Finally,  on  the  coast 
of  Jamaica,  Columbus  gave  up  the  struggle  ;  he  ordered 
his  crazy  vessels  to  be  run  aground,  within  a  bow-shot  of 
the  shore,  and  fastened  together,  side  by  side.  They 
soon  filled  with  water  to  the  decks.  Thatched  cabins 
were  then  erected  at  the  prows  and  stems,  for  the  accom- 
modation of  the  crews,  and  the  wreck  was  placed  in  the 
best  possible  state  for  defence. 

In  this  location  Columbus  remained  about  a  year,  at 
peace  with  the  natives,  but  rebelled  against  and  deserted 
by  a  large  part  of  his  soldiers,  as  well  as  reduced  to  ex- 
treme hazard  of  famine.  He  survived,  however,  with  a 
small  company  of  his  men ;  and  upon  the  28th  of  June, 
15(M,  they  had  the  inexpressible  satisfaction  of  leaving 
this  memorable  spot,  in  two  vessels  sent  them  by  the  gov- 
ernor of  San  Domingo.  They  arrived  in  that  colony  on 
the  13th  of  August ;  and  there,  for  once,  the  unfortunate 
admiral,  too  humble  and  wretched  to  be  any  longer  the 
object  of  envy,  was  received  with  the  honor  due  to  his 
distinguished  character  and  services.  He  remained  at 
this  place  until  the  12th  of  September,  when  he  com- 
menced his  last  voyage  to  Spain  ;  nor  was  it  until  nearly 
two  months'  tempestuous  and  perilous  navigation,  during 
which  one  of  his  two  vessels  was  obliged  to  put  back, 
that  the  other,  shattered  and  crazy,  anchored  at  last 
in  the  harbor  of  San  Lucar.  From  this  port,  Colum- 
bus had  himself  immediately  conveyed,  feeble  and  worn 
out  as  he  was,  to  Seville.  Thenceforth,  the  rest  which 
he  now  sought  fled  from  his  pursuit.  His  family  affairs 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 


373 


were  in  confusion  :  '  If  I  desire  to  eat  or  sleep,'  he  writes, 
'  I  have  no  resort  but  an  inn,  and  for  the  most  part  have 
not  wherewithal  to  pay  my  bill.'  He  was  anxious,  too, 
for  the  restoration  of  all  the  original  honors  of  which  he 
had  been  gradually  deprived;  and  he  earnestly  desired, 
on  this  and  other  accounts,  to  get  to  court.  But  this  his 
illness  made  impossible ;  and  meanwhile  his  warm  and 
constant  patroness,  the  queen,  died  upon  the  20th  of 
November,  150-4.  He  was  able  to  spend  months  of  at- 
tendance at  court  during  the  next  season,  but  this  was 
now  unavailing  :  Ferdinand  complimented  him  politely, 
but  otherwise  gave  him  neither  encouragement  or  assist- 
ance. 

Life  was  now  drawing  to  a  close,  for  he  was  once  more 
confined  to  his  bed  by  a  severe  illness,  aggravated  by  his 
sorrows  and  disappointments.  Ingratitude,  the  suspension 
of  his  honors,  pecuniary  embarrassments,  defamation,  anx- 
iety for  his  own  glory  and  for  the  welfare  of  the  Spanish 
settlements  in  the  west,  all  had  their  effect  upon  him,  an 
effect  too  strong  for  a  worn-out  constitution  to  endure. 
Admonished  of  his  approaching  end,  he  made  suitable 
preparations  for  it  with  resignation  and  with  calmness. 
The  property  which  he  still  owned  he  ordered  to  be  dis- 
tributed among  relations,  friends  and  servants  ;  so  min- 
utely remembering  the  smallest  debts,  that  half  a  mark 
of  silver  was  left  to  a  poor  Jew,  who  lived  at  the  gate  of 
Jewry  in  the  city  of  Lisbon.  These  arrangements  satis- 
factorily made,  he  turned  his  exclusive  attention,  ear- 
nestly but  with  composure,  to  the  interest  of  his  own  soul  : 
and  having  received  the  holy  sacraments,  and  performed 
all  the  pious  offices  of  a  devout  Christian,  he  calmly 
breathed  his  last  on  the  day  of  Ascension,  May  20th, 
1506,  at  the  age  of  about  seventy  years.  His  last  words 
were  ' //*  monus  tuas,  Domine,  commcndo  spirit um  me- 
um' — '  Into  thy  hands,  O  Lord,  I  commend  my  spirit.' 

His  body  was  deposited  in  the  convent  of  St  Francis- 
co, and  his  obsequies  were  celebrated  with  funeral  pomp 
at  Valladolid.  In  1513,  his  remains  were  transported  to 
the  Carthusian  monastery  of  Las  Cuevas,  at  Seville, 
where  also  those  of  his  son  Diego  were  deposited  upon 
his  death  in  1526.  Ten  years  after  this,  the  bodies  of 


874  LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS. 

both  father  and  son  were  removed  to  Hispaniola,  and 
interred  in  the  principal  chapel  of  the  cathedral  of  the 
city  of  San  Domingo.  But  even  here  they  did  not  rest 
in  quiet — for  when  the  Spanish  section  of  the  island  just 
named  was,  in  1795,  ceded  by  France  to  Spain,  a  strong 
solicitation  was  made  by  the  latter  that  the  ashes  of  the 
admiral  might  be  exhumed  and  translated  to  Havana, 
in  Cuba.  The  request  was  complied  with  ;  and  the  ob- 
ject carried  into  effect  with  a  variety  of  solemn  ceremo- 
nies not  unworthy  of  mention.  On  the  20th  of  Decem- 
ber, in  the  year  last  named,  a  large  number  of  the  most 
distinguished  citizens  and  dignitaries  of  San  Domingo 
assembled  in  the  cathedral  :  and  in  their  presence  a 
small  vault  was  opened  above  the  chancel,  in  the  princi- 
pal wall  on  the  right  side  of  the  high  altar.  Within  were 
found  the  fragments  of  a  leaden  coffin,  a  number  of  bones, 
and  a  quantity  of  mould,  evidently  the  remains  of  a  hu- 
man body.  These  were  carefully  collected,  and  put  into 
a  case  of  gilded  lead,  about  half  an  ell  in  length  and 
breadth,  and  a  third  in  height,  secured  by  an  iron  lock ; 
the  case  was  inclosed  in  a  coffin  covered  with  black  vel- 
vet, and  ornamented  with  lace  and  fringe  of  gold.  The 
whole  was  then  placed  in  a  temporary  tomb  or  mausole- 
um ;  on  the  following  day,  vigils  and  masses  for  the  dead 
were  solemnly  chanted;  and  a  funeral  sermon  delivered  by 
the  Archbishop  of  San  Domingo.  At  four  o'clock  in 
the  afternoon  the  coffin  was  conveyed  to  the  ship  destined 
for  the  transportation,  with  a  civil,  religious  and  military 
procession,  banners  wrapped  in  mourning,  chants,  re- 
sponses and  discharges  of  artillery.  The  key  of  the  cof- 
fin was  then  formally  delivered  into  the  hands  of  the 
highest  Spanish  authority  present,  to  be  by  him  given  to 
the  governor  of  Havana.  The  transfer  of  the  coffin  it- 
self was  noticed  by  salutes,  mourning-signals  throughout 
the  shipping  of  the  harbor,  and  by  all  the  other  honors 
due  to  an  admiral. 

On  the  arrival  of  the  ship  at  Havana,  January  15, 
1796,  everything  was  conducted  with  the  same  deep 
feeling,  and  by  similar  circumstantial  and  solemn  cere- 
monies. The  remains  were  conveyed  to  land  in  the  midst 
of  a  procession  of  three  columns  of  feluccas  and  boats  in 


LIFE    OF    COLUMBUS.  375 

the  royal  service,  and  attended  by  distinguished  citizens, 
and  by  a  marine  guard  of  honor,  with  mourning  ban- 
ners and  muffled  drums.  On  arriving  at  the  mole,  the 
remains  were  met  by  the  governor,  and  were  then  con- 
veyed, between  files  of  soldiery  which  lined  the  streets,  to 
the  obelisk,  in  the  place  of  arms;  and  thence,  after  great 
pomp  and  ceremonies  of  delivery,  to  the  cathedral  of 
the  city.  All  these,  and  other,  honors  and  ceremo- 
nies, say  the  historians  of  this  great  event,  '  were  attend- 
ed by  the  ecclesiastical  and  secular  dignitaries,  the  pub- 
lic bodies,  and  all  the  nobility  and  gentry  of  Havana,  in 
proof  of  the  high  estimation  and  respectful  remembrance 
in  which  they  held  the  hero  who  had  discovered  the  new 
world,  and  had  been  the  first  to  plant  the  standard  of  the 
cross  on  that  island.  It  is  well  oberved  by  a  recent  dis- 
tinguished biographer  of  Columbus,  that  when  we  read 
of  the  manner  in  which  his  remains  were  treated  at  San 
Domingo,  after  an  interval  of  nearly  three  hundred  years  ; 
the  most  illustrious  men  striving  who  should  pay  them 
most  reverence ;  '  we  cannot  but  reflect  that  it  was  from 
this  very  port  he  was  carried  off  loaded  with  ignominious 
chains,  blasted  apparently  in  fame  and  fortune,  and  fol- 
lowed by  the  revilings  of  the  rabble.'  To  that  place, 
too,  it  might  be  added,  the  venerable  and  noble  adven- 
turer returned,  upon  his  last  voyage,  to  be  refused  ad- 
mittance even  to  its  harbor.  '  Such  honors,  it  is  true, 
are  nothing  to  the  dead,  nor  can  they  atone  to  the  heart, 
now  dust  and  ashes,  for  all  the  wrongs  and  sorrows  it  may 
have  suffered  :  but  they  speak  volumes  of  comfort  to  the 
illustrious,  yet  slandered  and  persecuted  being,  encour- 
aging them  bravely  to  bear  with  present  injuries,  by  show- 
ing them  how  true  merit  outlives  all  calumny,  and  re- 
ceives its  glorious  reward  in  the  admiration  of  after  ages.' 


AGENTS 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 


MAINE. 

Portland,          Samuel  Colman. 
Hallowell,         C.  Spaulding. 

P.  A.  BriMsma.de. 

B.  Jfoursc. 

JV.  P.  Hawes. 


Augusta, 


Dover, 

Hanover, 

Concord, 

Keene, 

Portsmouth, 


Norway,  Asa  Barton. 

NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 
Eli  French, 
S.  C.  Stevens. 
Thomas  Mann. 
Horatio  Hill  if  Co. 
George  Tridm. 
John  W.  Foster. 
VERMONT. 
Burlington,       C.  Goodrich. 
Brattleboro',     Geo.  II.  Peck. 
Windsor,  Simeon  Ide. 

Montpelier,      J.  S.   Walton. 
Bellows  Falls,  James  I.  Cutler  $  Co, 
Rutland,  Wm.  Fay 

Middlebury,      Jonathan  Hagai: 
Castleton,         B.  Burlun  2d. 
St  Albans,        L.  L.  Duecher. 
Chester,  Charles  Whipple. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 
Salem,  Whipple  Sf  Lawrence. 

Newburyport,  Charles   Whipple. 
Northampton,  S.  Butler  Sf  Sun. 
Andover,          M.  JVeicman. 
Amherst,  .7.  S.  Sf   C.  Jldams. 

Worcester,        Dorr  $  Holland. 
Springfield,        Thomas  Dickman. 
New  Bedford,    rf.Shearman,Jr.S[  Co 
Methuen,  J.  W.   Carltou  l(  Co' 

Brookfield,!       F..  If  G.  Merriam. 
RHODE  ISLAND. 

Providence,    |  ^"re/  ^'"JJ,' 

CONNECTICUT. 
Hartford,          H.  §  F.  J.  Hnnlington 
New  Haven,     A.  H.  JUaltby 


Norwich,  Thomas  Robinson. 

Middlotuwn,       F.dirin  Hunt. 

NEW  YORK. 

New  York,          Charles  S.  Francis. 
Albany,  Little  4'   Cummin-rs. 

Canandaigua,     Bemis  $    Wird. 
Troy,  W.  S.  Parker. 

Utica,  G  S.  Hilson. 

Rochester,          E.  Peck  if   Co. 

NEW  JERSEY. 
Trenton,  />.  Fenton. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 


MARYLAND. 

Baltimore,          Charles  Carter. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMIUA. 
Washington,      Thompson  tf  tlomans. 
Georgetown,       James  Thomas. 

VIRGINIA. 

Fredericksburg,  H  m.  F.  Gray,  P.  Jlf. 
OHIO. 

Cincinnati,     j  £* 'i'^^J'J'c' 
Columbus,          J.  JV  Whilintr. 

MISSISSIPPI. 
Natchos,  F.  Beaumont. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 
Charleston,        Kbene-.tr  Thaycr. 

NORTH  CAROLINA. 
Raleigh,  Ttirner  if   Hu^hts. 

GEORGIA. 
Savannah,          Thomas  M.  Driscoll. 

ALABAMA. 
Mobile,  Odiorne  if  Smith. 

LOUISIANA. 
New  Orleans,    Mary  Carroll. 

MICHIGAN  TERRITORY. 


Detroit, 

Montreal, 
auebec, 


London, 


George  L.   Whitney. 
CANADA. 
H.  II.   Cunningham. 
jYeilson  tf  Cowan. 
ENGLAND. 
John  Mar  den. 


UBLISHED  BY  CARTER,  HENDEE  AND  BABCOCK, 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 


BOSTON     CLASSIC     PRESS 


R.     BUTT 


%*  TERMS — 24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  FIFTY 

ENTS. 


SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS 

NUMBER  XVI. 


CHARACTER  OF  COLUMBUS. 

IT  is  natural,  that  an  interest  should  be  felt  in  the 
moral  and  intellectual  character  of  a  man,  whose  life  oc- 
cupies so  large  a  space  in  the  annals  of  the  world  as  the 
life  of  Columbus.  The  discovery  of  America  was  a 
grand,  a  sublime  event.  It  was  an  era  in  history.  It 
was  the  opening  of  new  oceans  to  commerce,  of  new 
continents  to  civilization  and  science,  never  to  be  again 
closed  or  lost.  It  not  only  waked  up  the  activity  of 
Spain  and  Portugal,  the  countries  most  immediately 
concerned  in  the  act  itself,  but  it  sent  a  thrill  to  the 
heart  of  all  Europe.  A  new  impulse  was  thenceforth 
given  to  energy  and  to  enterprise,  wherever,  in  all  coun- 
tries and  all  climes,  there  was  discontent  to  be  quieted 
—  poverty  to  be  employed  —  avarice,  ambition,  the 
spirit  of  adventure,  of  science,  of  romance,  of  religion, 
to  be  gratified.  Well,  indeed  — when  the  long-lost  ves- 
sel of  Columbus  was  entering  the  harbor  of  Palos  on  its 
voyage  from  the  far  west  —  well  might  the  little  commu- 
nity of  that  ancient  and  honored  village,  break  forth  into 
transports  of  joy,  ringing  the  bells,  shutting  the  shops, 
and  suspending  all  business  in  the  tumult  and  triumph  of 
that  memorable  hour.  Well  might  the  progress  of  the 
admiral,  from  that  place  to  the  royal  residence  at  Barce- 
lona, resemble  a  Roman  triumph  in  its  splendor  and 
pomp.  Well  might  the  tidings  of  his  fame  be  spread  far 
and  wide  '  by  the  communications  of  ambassadors,  the 
correspondence  of  the  learned,  the  negotiations  of  rner 
chants,  and  the  reports  of  travellers,'  rilling  the  whole 
civilized  world  with  wonder  and  delight. 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xvi.  34 


378  CHARACTER    OP    COLUMBUS. 

The  character  of  the  man  who  occasioned  this  univer- 
sal excitement  must  needs  be  a  subject  of  interest ;  and 
the  more  so,  when  we  come  to  know,  that  everything 
which  he  achieved,  he  achieved  by  the  mere  force  of  his 
character  alone.  He  was  in  a  great  degree  uneducated, 

—  at  least  by  any  other  care  than  his  own,  —  for  the  life 
which  he  led,  and  the  labors  he  performed.     The  son  of 
an  humble  wool-comber  of  Genoa,  he  could  place  no 
reliance  upon  friends  or  fortune.    Leisure,  money,  books, 
society,  advice,' — everything  was  wanting  to  him  in  the 
outset,  but  the  desire  of  knowledge,  and  the  determina- 
tion to  obtain  and  to  use  it.     More  than  this.     He  had 
positive  obstacles  to  remove,  and  opposition  to  overcome, 
at  every  step  of  his  progress,  the  very  perusal  of  which 
is  appalling  to  the  reader  of  this  age.     The  science  and 
the  ignorance  of  his  times,  the  religion  of  the  priestcraft 
and  the  superstitions  of  the  people,  the  indifference  and 
indolence  of  monarchs,  and  the  envy  and  jealousy  of  all 
subordinate  authorities,  —  these  were  among  the  least  of 
his  difficulties.     Incredible  labors  were  to  be  performed, 
privations  to  be  endured,  mutiny  and  faction,  disappoint- 
ment,   danger,    sickness,   contempt,    suspicion,   insult, 
everything  but  death,  and  that  despair,  which  to  the  un- 
conquerable will  of  Columbus,  was  impossible.     But  he 
triumphed  at  last,  and  in  the  glory  of  that  triumph,  well 
may  the  memory  of  his  woes  and  his  wrongs  be  lost. 

And  yet  it  should  not  be  lost.  A  lesson  is  to  be  gath- 
ered from  them,  not  to  be  forgotten.  And  this  lesson 
applies  to  all  circumstances  and  conditions  of  men.  Few, 
indeed,  are  called  upon  to  door  to  endure  like  Columbus, 
as  still  fewer  can  expect  his  reward.  But  in  the  sphere 
of  the  humblest  man  in  society,  there  always  is  or  should 
be  some  honorable  and  honest  purpose  in  view ;  and  diffi- 
culties are  to  be  encountered,  and  success  obtained,  not 
precisely  of  the  same  nature,  but  yet  by  the  discipline 
and  the  exertion  of  the  same  common  faculties.  That 
this  discipline  and  this  exertion  were  the  causes  of  his 
success,  instead  of  extraordinary  genius,  as  that  vague 
word  seems  to  be  generally  understood,  —  and  in  direct 
opposition  has  been  seen  to  all  other  accidental  resources 

—  we  shall  endeavor  to  illustrate  in  the  course  of  the  fol- 
lowing sketch. 


CHARACTER  OF  COLUMBUS.  379 

It  is  worthy  of  special  observation,  in  the  first  place, 
how  early  in  life  Columbus,  though  both  unadvised  and 
unaided,  commenced  the  labor  of  his  own  education. 
Some  opportunities  were  given  him  by  his  father,  it  is 
true,  as  it  very  rarely  happens  that  such  are  not  given  : 
but  these  were  in  themselves  inconsiderable,  and  it  was 
his  merit,  of  course,  that  he  made  the  most  and  the  best 
of  them.  He  was  not  content  with  studying  whatever 
books  might  be  placed  in  his  hands,  though  he  did  un- 
doubtedly study  them,  such  as  they  were,  until  he  thorough- 
ly understood  them.  But  he  learned  from  them  that 
other  knowledge  was  to  be  gained  ;  and  so  desire  was 
excited  ;  effort  was  made  to  gratify  and  to  satisfy  it ;  and 
this  very  desire,  and  this  very  effort,  whether  successful 
or  not  at  the  time,  —  and  they  almost  always  are  so,  at 
some  time  or  other,  —  were  still  of  essential  value  to  his 
intellect  and  character.  They  encouraged  a  love  of 
knowledge,  that  once  awakened,  never  again  slept. 
They  brought  upon  him  the  necessity  of  reflection,  and 
of  close  and  constant  observation  of  men  and  things,  to 
answer  the  purpose  of  libraries  and  teachers  ;  of  the  en- 
tire application  of  all  his  faculties  to  everything  that  was 
—  for  the  want  of  things  that  were  not  —  within  his 
reach.  Thus  was  he  confirmed  in  habits  of  deep 
thought,  of  industry,  of  thoroughness,  of  independence, 
intellectual  and  moral  :  and  thus,  as  in  thousands  of 
other  cases,  was  the  foundation  slowly  but  firmly  laid 
for  a  life  and  a  character,  which  have  excited  the  admi- 
ration and  astonishment  of  the  world. 

He  neglected  nothing  which  could  be  of  service  to 
him,  however  trifling  ;  and  in  nothing  which  he  once 
undertook,  and  which,  of  course,  he  considered  worth 
undertaking,  did  he  stop  short  of  such  perfection  as  his 
means  permitted.  He  wrote  so  elegant  a  hand,  for  in- 
stance, in  his  boyhood,  that  those  who  possessed  some  of 
his  manuscript  afterwards,  were  of  opinion  that  he  might 
have  earned  his  livelihood  by  it  alone.  He  paid  a  very 
strict  attention  to  geography,  astronomy,  (then,  astrology, 
however,)  and  to  every  other  study  necessary  in  the  art 
of  navigation  ;  for  upon  this  all  his  desires  and  aspirations 
were  bent  from  the  moment  he  could  appreciate  the  cu- 


380  CHARACTER  OF  COLUMBUS. 

rious  and  adventurous  spirit  of  his  age.  The  labor  which 
he  spent  upon  the  construction  of  maps  and  charts,  in 
particular,  may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  he  sup- 
ported himself  and  his  family  for  several  years  in  Lisbon, 
by  this  very  art ;  and  on  two  or  three  other  occasions 
during  his  long  and  eventful  life,  he  resorted  to  the  same 
resource.  This  skill  and  science  he  may  have  acquired, 
to  a  small  extesit,  during  the  short  period  which  he  pass- 
ed at  school.  But  there  he  could  have  learned  only  the 
rudiments.  He  must  have  matured  and  multiplied  them 
in  his  mind,  as  well  as  acquired  the  necessary  manual 
dexterity,  by  devoting  to  these  pursuits  the  leisure  mo- 
ments of  his  naval  life  in  the  Mediterranean,  few  and  far 
between  as  they  certainly  were.  He  was  fortunate,  we 
have  no  right  to  say  sagacious,  enough  to  marry  at  Lisbon 
the  daughter  of  a  celebrated  Italian  voyager,  whose 
plans,  projects  and  documents  constituted,  with  the  ex- 
planations of  his  wife  and  her  mother,  both  the  recrea* 
tion  and  labor  of  years.  He  embraced  every  occasion, 
meanwhile,  to  obtain  information  from  every  living  source 
within  his  reach.  He  went  to  reside  upon  the  newly 
discovered  island  of  Porto  Santo,  for  a  time,  that  he 
might  be  in  the  way  of  the  African  navigators,  who 
touched  and  sometimes  tarried  there  on  their  voyages  to 
and  fro. 

How  rare,  and  how  meritorious  accordingly,  was  a 
skill  like  that  of  Columbus  in  the  construction  of  charts, 
is  evident  from  the  distinction  which  Mauro,  an  Italian 
friar,  obtained,  from  having  projected  a  universal  map, 
considered  the  most  accurate  of  the  time  :  a  fac-sirnile 
of  which  map  is  now  deposited  in  the  British  Museum 
at  London.  The  Venetians  struck  a  medal  in  honor  of 
Mauro,  on  which  they  entitled  him  the  Incomparabale 
Cosmographer.  Americus  Vespucius,  from  whom  this 
continent  has  derived  its  name,  paid  130  ducats, 
equivalent  to  555  dollars  of  our  coin,  for  a  map  of  sea 
and  land,  made  by  Gabriel  de  Valseca,  in  1439. 

Nor  did  these  attainments  alone  occupy  the  entire 
time  of  Columbus.  The  idea  of  his  theory  of  the  undis- 
covered western  world,  which  must  have  occurred  to  him 
early  in  the  course  of  his  geographical  reading,  never 


CHARACTER  OF  COLUMBUS.  381 

ceased  from  that  time  to  be  the  subject  of  his  thoughts, 
and  the  great  object  of  his  life.  To  digest  and  to  sub- 
stantiate it,  even  to  his  own  satisfaction,  must  have  cost 
him  both  reflection  and  research  enough  to  be  exclusive- 
ly the  employment  of  any  man.  The  evidences  of  the 
former,  furnished  by  his  theory  itself,  and  by  the  manner 
in  which  he  sustained  it,  need  not  be  enlarged  upon. 
But  it  will  be  found,  too,  that  situated  as  he  now  was  and 
ever  had  been,  —  with  the  necessity,  especially,  of  earn- 
ing his  daily  bread  by  his  daily  labor, —  he  had  carefully 
examined  the  best  of  the  extant  literature  of  his  age 
upon  the  subject.  He  delved  into  the  old  and  volumi- 
nous productions  of  Aristotle,  Seneca,  Pliny  and  Strabo, 
to  prove  that  the  '  ocean  surrounds  the  earth,'  or  that 
'  one  might  pass  from  Cadiz  to  the  Indies  in  a  few  days.' 
He  corresponded  with  a  learned  doctor  in  Italy,  and 
from  him  obtained  a  knowledge  of  the  narratives  of  Man- 
deville  and  Marco  Polo ;  all  to  corroborate  the  idea  that 
Asia,  or  as  he  always  termed  it,  India,  stretched  so  far 
to  the  east  as  to  occupy  a  greater  part  of  the  unexplored 
space,  and  to  leave  therefore  but  a  comparatively  narrow 
breadth  of  ocean  to  traverse  on  his  way  to  the  westward. 
Thus,  step  by  step,  year  by  year,  was  his  theory  estab- 
lished. And  meanwhile  he  was  personally  deriving  in- 
formation from  mariners,  pilots,  adventurers,  even  from 
the  ignorant  inhabitants  of  Porto  Santfc  —  among  whom, 
no  doubt,  daily 


-The  wonder  grew, 


That  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he  knew. 

He  ascertained  from  one  individual,  that  at  the  distance 
of  450  leagues  to  the  west  of  Cape  St  Vincent,  he  had 
picked  up  a  piece  of  carved  wood,  evidently  not  wrought 
with  an  iron  instrument.  Facts  of  the  same  nature  were 
communicated  to  him  by  his  brother-in-law,  a  navigator 
of  some  note.  He  had  heard  from  the  king  of  Portugal, 
that  immense  reeds  had  floated  to  some  of  the  islands 
from  the  west ;  in  the  description  of  which  he  was  pre- 
pared to  recognise  the  large  reeds  described  by  Ptolemy 
as  growing  in  India.  He  heard  also  of  the  trunks  of 
huge  pine  trees,  and  of  the  bodies  of  two  dead  men  cast 

\OL.  i.  —  NO.  xvi.  34* 


CHARACTER    OF    COLUMBUS. 


upon  the  island  of  Flores ;  and  a  mariner  of  Port  St  Mary 
told  him,  that  in  the  course  of  a  voyage  to  Ireland,  he 
had  seen  land  on  '  the  outer  side,'  which  the  ship's  crew 
took  for  the  extreme  part  of  Tartary.  Nor  is  it  to  be 
doubted  that  useful  suggestions  might  accrue  to  a  mind 
like  that  of  Columbus,  even  from  the  prevalent  rumors 
concerning  the  fancied  islands  of  St  Branden,  the  Seven 
Cities,  and  various  other  fables  of  a  similar  nature.  All 
these  things,  at  all  events,  were  carefully  noted  among 
his  memoranda ;  and  trifling  as  they  may  appear  at  the 
present  day,  they  were  probably  important  as  they  were 
novel  and  rare  then;  and  they  certainly  indicate,  at  least, 
the  inquisitiveness  and  the  energy  of  the  indefatigable 
theorist.  And  thus,  again,  was  the  humble  and  pooi 
day-laborer  acquiring  the  confidence,  and  drawing  to- 
gether the  knowledge,  from  all  the  ends  of  the  earth, 
which  were  to  be  his  guide  and  support  through  life,  and 
to  be  the  foundation  of  an  imperishable  fame. 

Nor  was  it  mere  knowledge  or  mere  discipline  of  the 
mind,  or  mere  moral  habits  of  value,  which  he  had  thus 
far  acquired.  As  much  as  he  had  studied  and  learned, 
he  was  the  very  reverse  of  a  simply  sedentary  or  specu- 
lative man.  On  the  other  hand,  he  was  eminently  a  prac- 
tical and  an  active  man.  In  the  naval  science  of  the 
Mediterranean,  he  had  inured  himself  to  bodily  hardships, 
privations  and  exertions  for  many  years ;  nor  was  he  now 
situated  to  be  free  from  them.  But,  however  such  a 
man  might  be  situated,  he  could  not  be  without  resources 
for  any  undertaking.  Whatever  were  his  manual  em- 
ployments, no  time  was  lost.  Without  leisure  and  without 
books  —  conversation  in  society,  and  reflection  in  soli- 
tude were  made  constantly  subservient  to  the  one  great 
object.  And  thus  —  it  is  well  worth  observing  —  was 
he  not  only  gaining  that  science  and  that  power  of  mind 
which  are  or  should  be  the  ordinary  results  of  the  labors 
of  a  mere  scholar  ;  but  he  was  gaining  them  by  a  study 
of  human  nature  and  human  life,  in  himself  and  in  all 
around  him.  Here  he  acquired  the  facility  of  reading  the 
character  and  of  managing  the  passions  of  men,  which 
was  so  indispensable  to  his  success  in  afterlife;  and 
without  which  no  man,  however  learned  or  ingenious,  is 


CHARACTER   OF   COLUMBUS.  383 

fitted  for  the  conduct  of  business,  and  especially  of  busi- 
ness upon  a  large  scale.  Even  industry  and  energy, 
without  self-command  and  command  over  others,  will 
only  suffice  for  a  man  so  long  as  he  labors  by  himself.  If 
he  would  set  on  foot  and  sustain  great  plans,  he  must 
know  how  to  illuminate  or  at  least  to  control  other  minds, 
to  interest  other  hearts,  and  to  employ  other  hands, 
than  his  own. 

We  have  attended  to  the  self-command  which  was  a 
trait  in  the  character  of  Columbus.  It  was  a  very  im- 
portant one,  too ;  for  as  no  quality  is  so  essentially  ne- 
cessary to  an  influence  over  others,  so  no  individual  ever 
had  more  occasion  or  more  need,  perhaps,  for  its  exer- 
cise than  Columbus.  It  was  self-denial  in  temptation, 
self-possession  in  danger,  self-respect  and  self-confidence 
in  ignominy  and  disappointment,  magnanimity  in  resent- 
ment, and  in  every  emergency,  in  a  word,  coolness  and 
fortitude.  All  these  were  in  him,  as  indeed  they  are  ge- 
nerally, but  various  manifestations  of  the  same  great 
principle  of  self-control,  variously  exercised  by  the  dif- 
ferent occasions  of  life.  It  is  true  that  one  temptation 
may  be  stronger  in  a  man's  mind  than  another  —  avarice 
than  ambition,  for  example  —  or  mere  appetite  than  any 
passion ;  but  it  is  also  true  that  the  same  power  which 
will  enable  himself  completely  to  control  the  one,  will 
enable  him  to  check  or  to  compromise  with  the  other. 

The  first  interview  of  Columbus  with  Aguado,  the 
Spanish  agent  sent  out  to  San  Domingo,  by  the  influence 
of  his  enemies,  to  investigate  certain  malicious  and  in- 
solent charges  brought  against  him,  is  a  fine  illustration 
of  the  foregoing  remarks.  Entrusted  as  he  had  been 
and  deserved  to  be,  in  the  first  instance,  with  high  honors 
and  almost  exclusive  and  supreme  authority  in  the  west, 
the  mere  appointment  of  a  petty  functionary  to  exercise 
even  a  '  brief  authority'  over  him  —  with  whatever  decency 
or  dignity  it  might  have  been  done,  had  the  functionary 
been  anything  like  a  gentleman,  —  would  have  been 
galling  enough  to  a  man  of  fur  less  spirit  than  Columbus. 
But  Aguado,  a  vulgar  and  weak  character,  was  purled 
up  by  his  temporary  power.  He  interfered  with  public 
affairs  on  his  first  arrival  in  the  colony  :  ordered  various 


384  CHARACTER    OP    COLUMBUS, 

persons  to  be  arrested  ;  called  to  account  the  officers  ap- 
pointed by  the  admiral ;  and  insulted  his  brother,  who 
remained  in  command  during  the  absence  of  Columbus 
himself.  He  then  ordered  his  letter  of  credence  to  be 
proclaimed  pompously  by  sound  of  trumpet,  the  vague 
and  irresponsible  wording  of  which  was  not  the  least  of 
the  provocations  of  the  admiral  — '  Cavaliers,  Esquires, 
and  other  persons  who  by  our  orders  are  in  the  Indies, 
we  sent  to  you  Juan  Aguado,  our  groom  of  the  cham- 
bers, who  will  speak  to  you  on  our  part ;  we  command 
you  to  give  him  faith  and  credit.' 

Among  a  disorderly  population,  the  report  soon  circu- 
lated that  the  downfal  of  Columbus  was  at  hand,  and 
that  the  grievances  of  the  public  were  to  be  heard  and 
redressed.  Immediately,  every  culprit  became  an  ac- 
cuser ;  for  every  man  who  had  been  punished  was  dis- 
posed to  complain  of  it  as  oppression ;  and  all  the  other 
troubles  which  existed  or  had  existed  in  the  colony  were 
imputed  to  the  same  source.  Aguado,  meanwhile,  pre- 
tending to  believe  that  Columbus,  who  was  in  the  interior, 
purposed  to  avoid  returning  to  the  colony,  affected  to  set 
out  with  a  company  of  horse  to  go  in  quest  of  him.  The 
latter,  meanwhile,  was  hastening  to  Isabella  to  give  him 
a  meeting  ;  and  Aguado,  hearing  of  his  approach,  also 
returned  there.  A  violent  explosion  was  now  generally 
expected  (for  the  high  sense  which  Columbus  had  of  his 
services  and  dignity  was  well  known,)  and  Aguado  him- 
self looked  forward,  it  is  said,  '  with  the  ignorant  auda- 
city of  a  little  mind  to  the  result.'  But  all  were  disap- 
pointed. Columbus  received  his  rival,  if  a  man  could 
be  called  such,  whom  he  so  utterly  and  justly  despised, 
with  the  most  grave  and  punctilious  courtesy  ;  only  re- 
torting upon  him  his  own  ostentatious  ceremonial,  by 
ordering  the  letter  of  credence  to  be  again  proclaimed 
by  sound  of  trumpet  in  the  presence  of  the  wondering 
populace.  He  listened  to  it  himself  with  solemn  defer- 
ence, and  assured  Aguedo  of  his  readiness  to  acquiesce 
in  whatever  was  the  pleasure  of  his  sovereigns.  The 
advantages  of  this  collected  and  dignified,  though  diffi- 
cult course  of  conduct,  are  very  obvious.  He  had  to 
endure,  indeed,  the  slurs  of  every  dastard  spirit  in  the 


CHARACTER    OF    COLUMBUS.  385 

colony  upon  his  courage.  But  he  completely  thwarted 
his  mean  rival.  The  latter  had  expected  with  some  ex- 
ultation to  see  him  enraged  or  at  least  dispirited.  He 
endeavored,  in  fact,  a  few  months  afterwards,  to  obtain 
from  the  public  notaries  present  a  prejudicial  statement 
of  the  interview ;  but  the  good  conduct  of  the  admiral 
had  been  too  marked  to  be  disputed,  and  the  testi- 
monials were  all  highly  in  his  favor. 

During  the  absence  of  Columbus  on  his  third  voyage, 
Bobadilla  was  sent  out  from  Spain  with  an  agency's!  mi  lar 
to  that  of  Aguado.  He  was  a  man  of  some  rank,  but 
he  was  needy,  passionate  and  ambitious :  and  he  had 
already  made  up  his  opinions  violently  against  the  admi- 
ral. He  considered  his  alleged  cruelty  entirely  proved, 
therefore,  when  he  saw  the  body  of  a  Spaniard  hanging 
upon  a  gibbet  on  either  bank  of  the  river  San  Domingo, 
as  he  sailed  up.  This  and  a  hundred  other  charges 
were  substantiated,  during  the  day,  by  multitudes  of  people 
who  came  off  in  boats  to  see  him,  and  to  pay  court  to 
him,  while  they  revenged  themselves  by  some  accusa- 
tion against  Columbus.  On  landing,  he  assumed  supreme 
authority  at  once,  and  called  upon  Don  Diego,  the 
brother  of  Columbus,  (himself  absent,)  to  submit  to  him. 
This  he  refused  to  do  until  he  was  satisfied  of  the  right 
of  Bobadilla  to  exercise  this  command  ;  but  the  latter 
declined  showing  it,  and  contented  himself  with  a  few 
vulgar  and  blustering  bravados.  Not  only  Don  Diego, 
he  said,  but  the  admiral  himself  should  know  whom  they 
had  to  deal  with.  On  the  following  day,  as  Diego  still 
refused  to  give  up  certain  prisoners  whom  he  held  con- 
fined by  his  brother's  order,  Bobadilla  fell  into  a  grievous 
passion  ;  and  having  mustered  a  shouting  and  riotous  mob 
about  him  by  reading  his  commission,  he  proceeded 
forthwith  to  lead  them  against  the  prison.  This  was  a 
small  slight  building,  wholly  incapable  of  resisting  so 
tremendous  a  force,  had  there  been  any  garrison  in  it  — 
which  there  did  not  happen  to  be — or  had  the  garrison 
been  inclined  to  oppose  this  motley  multitude  with  their 
own  weapons.  This  not  being  the  case,  Bobadilla  fell 
furiously  upon  the  frail  bolts  and  locks  of  the  portal,  and 
they  gave  way  at  the  first  shock ;  his  zealous  followers, 


CHARACTER    OF    COLUMBUS. 


meanwhile,  having  been  at  the  unnecessary  trouble  of 
applying  ladders  to  the  walls  of  the  building  in  all  direc- 
tions, as  if  scaling  a  fortress.  The  prisoners  were  seized 
upon,  and  transferred  to  a  prison  of  his  own  choice.  He 
then  insolently  took  up  his  residence  in  the  house  of  Co- 
lumbus; possessed  himself  of  his  arms,  gold  plate  jewels, 
horses,  books,  letters,  and  other  papers  public  and  pri- 
vate, even  of  the  most  sacred  nature ;  liquidated  the  de- 
mands of  all  who  claimed  any  debt  due  from  Columbus; 
and  appropriated  the  residue,  without  the  least  ceremony, 
to  his  own  benefit.  He  supported  himself  with  the  popu- 
lace, meanwhile,  first,  by  vilifying  the  admiral,  and 
secondly,  by  proclaiming  a  general  license  for  the  term 
of  twenty  years,  to  seek  for  gold.  He  soon  after  sum- 
moned Columbus,  who  was  in  the  country,  to  appear  be- 
fore him  immediately. 

The  latter  had  heard  of  his  measures,  and  he  well 
knew  the  character  of  the  man.  He  could  scarcely  yet 
believe,  indeed,  that  such  a  character,  if  any,  should  be 
appointed  to  such  an  authority  over  himself,  after  all  the 
sorrows  and  services  which  had  worn  him  down  nearly 
to  the  grave — a  sufficient  provocation  alone,  indepen- 
dently of  the  outrageous  insults  we  have  mentioned. 
The  conduct  of  the  admiral  at  this  juncture  is  a  true 
test  of  his  character.  Instantly  on  receiving  the  sum- 
mons in  the  name  of  his  sovereign,  he  started  off  unat- 
tended for  San  Domingo,  while  Bobadilla,  in  the  mean- 
time, was  arming  the  city  troops  in  the  apprehension 
that  Columbus  was  mustering  an  army  among  the  In- 
dians to  resist  him.  He  had  just  before  this  seized  upon 
Don  Diego,  thrown  him  in  irons,  and  confined  him  on 
board  a  caravel,  without  authority  and  without  reason. 

Columbus,  purposely  with  no  guards  or  retinue,  now 
entered  the  city,  amid  the  hostile  preparation,  bustle  and 
bravado  of  Bobadilla.  The  latter,  thus  baulked  in  his 
military  ambition,  avenged  his  own  disappointment  by 
giving  instant  orders  for  putting  the  admiral  in  irons  and 
confining  him  in  prison,  —  a  measure  which  shocked  even 
the  enemies  of  the  latter.  No  person  could  be  induced 
to  put  the  irons  upon  his  person,  in  fact,  until  one  of  his 
own  domestics,  *  a  graceless  and  shameless  cook,'  says 


CHARACTER    OF    COLUMBUS.  387 

the  historian  Las  Casas,  '  with  unwashed  front,  riveted 
the  fetters  upon  his  master  with  as  much  alacrity  as 
though  he  were  serving  him  with  choice  and  savory 
viands.'  '  I  knew  the  fellow,'  he  adds,  '  and  I  think  his 
name  was  Espinosa.'  The  admiral  being  disposed  of  in 
this  manner,  there  was  no  difficulty  in  proving  him 
guilty  of  every  charge  of  which  he  might  be  accused. 
He  was  found,  accordingly,  to  have  compelled  gentlemen 
to  labor  in  a  case  of  public  emergency,  with  their  own 
hands ;  to  have  occasioned  all  manner  of  mutinies  and 
seditions  by  his  mismanagement,  and  then  suppressed 
them  by  '  levying  war  against  the  government.'  He  had 
confined,  starved,  or  otherwise  punished  various  persons, 
all  of  whom  were,  of  course,  entirely  innocent.  Moreover, 
he  had  embezzled  pearls,  or  at  least  pearls  were  found  in  his 
house  :  and  the  farther  inference  was,  that  the  proceeds 
of  all  his  voyages  had  been  appropriated  to  his  own 
benefit. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  these  base  slanders  were 
made  a  part  of  the  suffering  of  Columbus  during  his 
confinement.  The  confinement  itself  he  knew  to  be  as 
much  without  cause  as  it  was  without  authority.  '  I 
make  oath,'  he  writes  at  this  time,  '  that  I  do  not  know 
for  what  I  am  imprisoned,'  —  and  again,  —  '  I  was  taken 
and  thrown  with  two  brothers  into  a  ship,  loaded  with 
irons,  with  little  clothing  and  much  ill  treatment,  without 
being  convicted  or  summoned  by  justice.'  The  latter 
step  was  subsequent  to  those  mentioned  already.  Boba- 
dilla,  finding  he  had  succeeded  so  well  in  his  own  abuse 
of  Columbus,  that  insulting  pasquinades  were  posted 
up  at  every  corner,  and  horns  blown  by  the  mob  in  the 
neighborhood  of  the  prison,  felt  secure  in  going  still  far- 
ther. Several  vessels  were  now  ready  to  sail  for  Spain, 
and  he  determined  to  put  the  admiral  and  his  brothers 
on  board  of  them,  under  charge  of  one  Villejo.  This 
man,  who  happened  to  be  a  gentleman,  repaired  to  the 
prison,  with  a  guard,  to  conduct  his  venerable  prisoner 
to  the  shore.  He  found  him  still  in  chains,  dejected  and 
silent.  He  had  long  feared  that  he  should  fall  a  sacrifice 
to  the  vulgar  and  violent  passions  let  loose  around  him  ; 
and  he  naturally  looked  toVillejo,  when  he  entered,  as  his 


388  CHARACTER  OF  COLUMBUS. 

executioner.  '  Villejo,'  said  he  mournfully,  '  whither 
would  you  take  me?'  '  To  the  ship,  your  excellency,  to 
embark,'  replied  the  other.  'To  embark  !' replied  the 
admiral  earnestly:  'Villejo!  do  you  speak  the  truth?' 
'  By  the  life  of  your  excellency,'  replied  the  officer,  '  it  is 
true ! '  The  admiral  now  followed  him  almost  with  a 
cheerfulness,  though  obliged  to  endure,  on  his  way  to  the 
shore,  the  scoffs  and  hoots  of  the  assembled  populace. 
Villejo  treated  him  respectfully  on  the  passage,  and  would 
even  have  taken  off  his  chains ;  but  this,  with  a  noble 
dignity,  he  declined.  'No!'  said  he  proudly,  'under 
the  authority  of  my  sovereigns,  Bobadilla  has  put  these 
chains  upon  me  :  I  will  wear  them  until  they  shall  order 
them  to  be  taken  off,  and  I  will  preserve  them  afterwards 
as  relics  and  memorials  of  the  reward  of  my  services.'  It 
is  affecting  to  know  that  he  thought  so  much  of  this 
promise  of  his  own,  as  to  keep  the  chains  ever  after 
hanging  in  his  cabinet,  and  to  request  that  they  might 
be  buried  with  him  when  he  died.  It  is  abundantly 
evident,  that  he  felt,  on  this  occasion,  as  on  many  others, 
a  great  deal  more  than  he  expressed.  His  passions 
were  strong,  but  his  power  over  them  was  still  stronger. 
His  li%  is  full  of  illustrations  of  this  self-control,  and 
of  the  great  advantages  of  it.  In  danger,  for  example, 
he  not  only  secured  the  confidence  or  at  least  the  respect 
of  the  people  around  him  by  his  coolness,  but  he  was 
perfectly  possessed  of  his  natural  shrewdness  of  inven- 
tions, and  thus  frequently  contrived  plans  of  relief  with 
as  much  readiness  as  he  would  have  done  in  his  closet  at 
Jiome.  In  one  of  his  earliest  Mediterranean  voyages,  he 
effected  the  design  of  his  cruise  against  the  remonstran- 
ces and  threats  of  a  mutinous  crew,  by  apparently  as- 
senting to  their  wish  to  tack  about  —  altering  the  point 
of  the  compass,  and  spreading  all  sail.  The  next  morn- 
ing they  found  themselves  hundreds  of  miles  from  their 
expected  destination,  and  were  obliged  to  submit  to  his 
management  for  the  rest  of  the  voyage.  So,  in  the  first 
voyage  over  the  Atlantic,  when  his  ignorant  crew  were 
frightened  by  every  new  phenomenon  they  observed,  he 
was  invariably  prepared  to  quiet  them.  He  kept  two 
reckonings  during  this  vovage,  in  one  of  which,  open  to 


CHARACTER    OP    COLUMBUS.  389 

general  inspection,  some  leagues  were  daily  subtracted 
from  the  ship's  sailing,  that  the  crews  might  be  ignorant 
of  the  real  distance  they  had  advanced.  With  the  same 
readiness  he  explained  to  them  the  explosions  of  the 
Teneriffe  peaks — the  variations  of  the  needle  —  the 
sudden  swells  and  calms  of  the  ocean  (the  causes  of  some 
of  which  he  did  not  himself  understand)  —  while,  on 
many  of  these  occasions,  his  fanatical  and  frightened 
companions  were  muttering  threats,  in  his  hearing,  of 
despatching  him  with  violent  hands.  Another  memor- 
able instance  of  his  coolness  occurred  on  the  return 
voyage,  when,  amidst  the  roar  of  a  terrific  storm  —  while 
the  ocean  foamed  over  his  ship,  and  the  mariners  lay 
prostrate  around  him,  trembling,  praying,  and  buried  in 
tears  —  he  found  leisure  to  write  an  account  of  his  voy- 
age and  discovery.  This  he  sealed,  directed  it  to  his 
sovereigns,  and  superscribed  a  promise  of  1000  ducats  to 
whomsoever  should  deliver  it  safe.  He  then  wrapped  it 
in  a  waxed  cloth,  which  he  placed  in  the  centre  of  a  cake 
of  wax,  and  inclosing  the  whole  in  a  barrel,  threw  it  into 
the  sea.  Nor  was  this  sufficient.  For  fear  a  single  copy 
might  be  lost,  he  prepared  another  in  precisely  the  same 
elaborate  manner,  to  be  placed  in  another  situation ;  and 
all  this,  which  he  did  for  the  satisfaction  of  his  own  am- 
bition, and  the  good  of  his  country,  he  had  the  sagacity 
to  use  as  a  means  of  quieting  the  fears  of  the  seamen, 
under  the  pretext  of  having  performed  a  solemn  religious 
vow  for  the  laying  of  the  storm. 

In  another  case,  his  astronomical  science  was  the 
means  of  his  safety.  He,  and  a  few  of  his  crew  wh« 
had  not  mutinied  and  deserted  him,  were  confined  on  the 
desolate  shores  of  the  Island  of  Jamaica,  while  the  na- 
tives around  him  would  neither  sell  them  food,  nor  suffer 
them  to  procure  it.  They  were,  in  fact,  in  imminent 
danger  of  starvation,  besides  apprehending  a  still  more 
dreaded  hostility  on  the  part  of  the  natives.  Columbus, 
knowing  that  there  would  be  a  total  eclipse  of  the  moon 
in  three  days,  sent  an  Indian  to  summon  all  the  chiefs 
of  the  neighborhood  to  a  grand  council,  on  the  day  of 
the  eclipse.  Having  got  them  together,  he  gave  them  a 
solemn  warning  of  the  fate  which  awaited  them,  if  they 

VOL.  i.  — NO.  xvi.         35 


CHARACTER    OF    COLUMBUS. 


refused  to  furnish  him  with  provisions ;  as  a  confirmation 
of  which  he  told  them  they  would  see  the  moon  deprived 
of  its  light.  Some  of  the  Indians  were  alarmed  at  this; 
others  scoffed  ;  but  all  awaited  the  evening  with  great 
anxiety.  A  dark  shadow  began  to  steal  slowly  over  the 
moon,  as  they  stood  watching  it  in  silent  awe,  and  they 
trembled  at  the  sight.  Their  fears  increased  with  the 
progress  of  the  eclipse  :  and  when  a  mysterious  darkness 
finally  covered  the  whole  face  of  nature,  there  were  no 
bounds  to  their  terror.  They  hurried  to  the  ships  with 
whatever  provisions  were  nearest ;  threw  themselves  at 
the  feet  of  Columbus  ;  implored  him  to  intercede  with 
his  god  ;  and  promised  thenceforth  to  bring  him  anything 
and  everything  which  he  wished.  Columbus,  telling 
them  then  he  would  do  what  he  could,  retired  to  his 
cabin,  and  shut  himself  in  during  the  increase  of  the 
eclipse,  while  the  forests  and  shores  resounded  all  the 
while  with  the  howling  of  the  savages.  At  last,  as  the 
eclipse  was  about  to  diminish,  he  came  forth,  and  gave 
them  to  understand  that  he  would  soon  withdraw  the 
darkness  from  the  moon,  in  consideration  of  what  they 
had  promised.  As  more  and  more  of  the  face  of  the 
bright  planet  now  became  visible,  they  were  overwhelm- 
ed with  joy  and  admiration ;  nor  from  that  time  forth 
did  they  cease  to  propitiate  the  friendship  of  Columbus, 
as  a  man  peculiarly  owned  by  the  deity.  This  anecdote 
is  given  in  proof  of  his  presence  of  mind  in  great  dan- 
ger. It  shows  also  to  what  an  extent  he  had  pursued 
his  astronomical  investigation,  as  he  pursued  everything 
^Ise  which  he  undertook  ;  and  how,  indirectly  as  well  as 
directly,  sooner  or  later,  almost  all  knowledge  may  be- 
come useful  in  the  various  emergencies  of  life.  At  all 
events,  it  can  never  be  without  value,  if  it  does  but  in- 
spire the  self-confidence  which  is  indispensable  to  self- 
jiossession. 

Nor  is  it  —  or  was  it  in  the  case  of  Columbus  —  of 
service  only  in  emergencies.  It  was  never  absent,  as  the 
occasion  of  it  never  was,  in  his  mind.  It  kept  up,  in  the 
great  continuous  courses  of  events  which  distinguished 
his  life,  the  universal  dignity  —  the  moderation  —  the 
magnanimity  of  his  character.  No  individual,  perhaps, 


CHARACTER    OP    COLUMBUS.  391 

was  ever  more  thoroughly  tried,  or  more  honorably  ac- 
quitted, by  adversity  or  by  prosperity.  He  endured  every 
hardship,  privation,  ignominy,  disappointment,  distress, 
desertion,  ridicule  and  contempt;  and  he  bore  up  against 
all,  and  triumphed  over  all,  silently,  slowly  and  alone, 
but  completely  and  gloriously.  But  he  had  to  triumph 
also  over  the  strong  temptations  of  flattery,  of  unbounded 
and  magnificent  success,  of  popular  admiration,  and  of 
royal  favor ;  and  these  were  not  the  least  of  his  trials. 
We  have  but  to  imagine  him,  as  he  frequently  was, 
•  surrounded  by  doubt  and  danger ;  a  foreigner  among  a 
jealous  people  ;  an  unpopular  commander  in  a  mutinous 
island  ;  distrusted  and  slighted  by  the  government  he 
was  seeking  to  secure  ;  and  creating  suspicion  by  his 
very  services.'  To  these  circumstances  must  be  added  his 
loneliness,  the  hardships  of  a  wandering  and  perilous  life, 
and  the  extreme  physical  sickness  and  suffering  which 
several  times  brought  him  to  the  brink  of  the  grave. 

Is  not  such  a  man  prepared,  and  does  he  not  deserve 
to  relish,  whenever  and  wherever  they  may  meet  him, 
the  luxury  of  indolence  and  plenty,  the  ostentation  of 
success,  the  pride  of  popularity,  the  opportunity  of  safe 
revenge,  the  sweetness  of  adulation,  and  the  glory  of 
fame  ?  In  the  very  shackles  of  the  culprit,  then,  as  he 
leaves  one  shore  of  the  Atlantic,  hooted  at  by  the  mob, 
let  him  be  landed  upon  the  other.  There  let  his  chains 
fall ;  let  his  purse  be  filled,  his  success  acknowledged, 
his  innocence  proved,  his  favor  solicited,  his  enemies  and 
his  rivals  humbled  at  his  feet,  his  person  followed  from 
town  to  town,  over  all  Spain,  with  the  splendor  of  noble 
processions,  and  the  welcoming  shouts  of  admiring  mul- 
titudes, while  his  glory  sounded  throughout  the  civilized 
earth  as  the  Discoverer  of  a  new  world.  All  this  affected 
not  the  equanimity  of  Columbus.  He  forgave  his  ene- 
mies the  moment  they  were  prostrate  at  his  feet;  and 
humbled  himself  before  Heaven,  for  his  success,  as  the 
poor  instrument  of  its  will. 

And  yet,  as  we  have  intimated,  there  are  abundant 
proofs  that  the  moderation,  the  courage,  the  fortitude  of 
Columbus  were  not  founded  upon  his  want  of  feeling. 
On  the  other  hand,  his  natural  passions  were  uncommonly 


392  CHARACTER    OF    COLUMBUS. 

strong.  Instances  are  not  wanting  to  show  that  he  was 
even  passionate,  in  the  vulgar  sense  of  the  term,  for  he 
could  not  always  forbear  punishing  excessive  insolence 
with  his  own  hand.  But  these  few  cases  only  suffice  to 
show  what  the  '  angry  temper  of  his  soul '  might  have 
been,  had  it  been  habitually  or  even  frequently  left  to  its 
own  nature. 

But  he  gave  free  course,  on  the  other  hand,  to  all  ge- 
nerous and  tender  emotions.  In  the  first  place,  he  was 
enthusiastically  religious.  When  he  looked  back  in  age 
upon  the  early  career  which,  hard  and  painful  as  it  had 
been,  seemed  precisely  calculated  for  his  final  success, 
he  regarded  himself  with  a  solemn  and  humble  awe  as  the 
appointed  instrument  of  God.  His  theory  was  to  him  a  gift 
of  inspiration.  He  read  his  contemplated  discovery  ere  it 
was  yet  attempted,  as  foretold  in  holy  writ,  and  shadowed 
forth  darkly  in  the  mystic  revelations  of  the  prophets. 
It  was  to  be  the  triumphant  consummation  of  his  enter- 
prise, that  the  ends  of  the  earth  should  be  brought  to- 
gether, and  all  nations  and  tongues  and  languages  united 
under  the  banner  of  the  Saviour.  A  chief  argument, 
indeed,  by  which  he  persuaded  the  sovereigns  of  Spain 
to  countenance  his  undertaking,  was  founded  upon  the 
prospect  of  subduing,  through  the  medium  of  Chris- 
tianity, the  vast  and  magnificent  empire  of  the  Grand 
Khan,  and  the  opulent  isles  beyond,  which  he  expected 
to  arrive  at  in  his  western  voyage.  But  he  went  farther 
than  this,  even  then.  Kindling  with  the  anticipation  of 
boundless  wealth,  to  be  realized  by  his  discoveries,  he  sug- 
gested that  all  the  '  pearl  and  barbaric  gold  '  thus  ob- 
tained should  be  devoted  '  to  rescuing  the  holy  sepulchre 
of  Jerusalem  from  the  power  of  the  infidels.'  This  sin- 
gular project  ever  after  continued  to  be  a  grand  object 
of  his  ambition.  In  the  flush  of  fortune  and  glory  which 
succeeded  his  first  arrival  from  the  west,  he  even  made 
a  vow  to  furnish  within  seven  years  an  army  of  1000 
horse  and  50,000  foot  for  this  favorite  purpose,  and  a 
similar  force  within  the  five  following  years.  In  the  will 
which  he  executed  in  1498,  he  made  provisions  of  the 
same  nature.  Whoever  might  inherit  his  estate  was 
solemnly  enjoined  to  vest,  from  time  to  time,  as  much 


CHARACTER   OP    COLUMBUS.  393 

money  as  he  could  spare,  in  stock,  in  the  bank  of  St 
George  at  Genoa,  to  form  a  permanent  fund,  subservient 
at  any  future  time  to  the  king's  conquest  of  Jerusalem. 
If  the  king  should  not  undertake  it,  he  was  to  set  on  foot 
a  crusade  at  his  own  charge  and  risk. 

It  is  not  strange,  that  a  man  of  this  ardent  tempera- 
ment should  yield  to  many  of  the  prevalent  superstitions 
of  the  age,  less  characteristic  of  his  own  genius.  During 
a  tremendous  storm  which  occurred  upon  his  first  voy- 
age, some  of  the  crew,  by  his  orders,  vowed  that  in  case 
a  certain  lot  fell  upon  him,  he  would  make  a  pilgrimage 
to  a  certain  saint,  bearing  a  waxed  taper  of  five  pounds' 
weight.  The  admiral  drew  the  lot,  and  from  that  mo- 
ment considered  himself  apilgrim  bound  to  perform  the  vow. 
He  undertook  another  pilgrimage  also,  a  solemn  mass, 
and  a  vigil.  He  speaks  of  a  certain  movement  of  the 
sea  afterwards  as  providentially  ordered  to  allay  the 
clamors  of  his  crew,  like  a  similar  interposition  of  old, 
in  favor  of  Moses. 

The  suppression  of  a  mutiny  is  attributed  to  the  same 
cause  ;  and  he  himself  records  an  instance  of  what  he 
considered  a  supernatural  visitation.  He  was  sick  and 
dejected,  he  says,  and  had  almost  abandoned  himself  to 
despair,  when  he  heard  a  voice  calling  to  him,  '  O  man 
of  little  faith!  be  riot  cast  down  ;  fear  nothing;  I  will 
provide  for  thee.  The  seven  years  of  the  term  of  gold 
are  not  yet  expired,  (all  allusions  to  the  vow  of  the  holy 
sepulchres,)  and  in  that  and  all  other  things  I  will  take 
care  of  thee.'  On  that  very  day,  he  adds,  he  received 
intelligence  of  the  discovery  of  a  large  tract  of  country 
rich  in  mines.  Again,  he  writes  to  the  king  and  queen, 
that  the  Indians  of  Cariari,  on  the  coast  of  Jamaica,  were 
great  enchanters  ;  as  also  that  two  of  their  girls,  who 
had  visited  his  ship,  had  concealed  magic  powers  upon 
their  persons.  This  was  the  belief  also  of  his  mariners, 
it  seems ;  and  the  origin  of  it  was,  that  some  of  them 
had  taken  out  pen,  ink  and  paper  to  write  in  presence  of 
the  Indians,  who,  mistaking  the  process  for  a  necro- 
mantic spell,  had  themselves  scattered  a  fragrant 
powder  in  the  air  to  counteract  it. 

The  most  obvious  explanation  of  a  trait  in  this  great 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xvi.         35* 


394  CHARACTER   OF    COLUMBUS. 

man,  which  would  now  be  considered  a  weakness,  is  in 
the  universal  spirit  of  the  age  in  which,  and  the  people 
among  whom,  he  lived.  He  might  go  beyond  them  in 
knowledge  or  in  enterprise ;  but  the  science  which  un- 
dermines superstition  had  been  less  a  subject  of  his  at- 
tention, while  his  susceptible  temperament  exposed  him 
more  than  most  men  to  the  influence  of  mere  impression, 
individual  and  contagious.  We  must  consider  also  the 
extraordinary  circumstances  under  which  he  encountered 
these  impressions,  —  on  the  shores  of  an  undiscovered 
world,  where  everything  on  land  and  sea,  animate  and 
inanimate,  wore  in  itself  the  appearance  of  novelty  and 
of  mystery,  independently  of  the  excited  expectation  of 
the  individuals  concerned.  Ill  health,  and  a  shattered 
nervous  system,  are  circumstances  also  of  this  case.  But 
above  all,  we  should  estimate  the  influence  upon  the 
mind  of  Columbus,  of  his  own  early,  favorite,  deep-fixed 
theory,  with  the  ten  thousand  hopes,  recollections  and 
reveries  so  intimately,  so  constantly  associated  with  his 
intense  and  ceaseless  study  of  the  subject.  It  is  no 
wonder,  then,  that  his  imagination  partook  of  the  almost 
supernatural  excitement  of  every  other  faculty  of  his 
soul :  it  would  have  been  wonderful  if  it  had  not. 

It  is  a  matter  of  strong  interest,  under  these  circum- 
stances, to  observe  the  enthusiasm  of  his  specula- 
tions ;  and  how  closely  this  quality  follows  upon  his 
shrewdness  and  his  science,  frequently  passing  and  out- 
stripping them,  though  seldom  with  any  jostling  or  con- 
fusion. In  exploring,  for  the  first  time,  the  great  gulf 
of  Paria,  for  example,  he  formed  one  of  his  simple  and 
grand  conclusions  from  the  strict  rules  of  science,  and 
the  laws  and  the  phenomena  of  nature.  The  vast  body 
of  fresh  water  which  he  found  rushing  into  that  gulf,  could 
not  be  produced  by  an  island  or  by  islands.  It  must  be 
some  mighty  river,  he  believed,  which  had  wandered 
through  a  great  extent  of  country,  collecting  its  many 
streams.  The  land,  therefore,  must  be  a  continent. 
The  various  tracts  he  had  touched  in  various  places, 
must  have  some  connexion  with  each  other.  The  coast 
of  Paria,  off  Margarita,  must  extend  far  westward  ;  and 
the  land  seen  from  Trinidad  far  southward,  into  an  un- 
known tract  of  ocean.  Thus  far  he  argued  like  Colum- 


CHARACTER   OP    COLUMBUS.  395 

bus,  upon  his  own  reason  and  knowledge.  But  he  would 
penetrate  more  thoroughly  these  regions  of  mystery,  though 
guided  only  by  the  dirn  lights  of  the  science  of  his  age. 
This  must  be,  he  continued,  an  extension  of  the  Asiatic 
continent.  Of  course,  the  greater  part  of  the  globe  is 
firm  land  :  and  in  this  conclusion  he  found  himself  sup- 
ported by  Aristotle,  Seneca,  and  various  saints  and  car- 
dinals—  not  to  lay  stress  upon  the  apocryphal  assertion 
of  Esdras,  that  of  seven  parts  of  the  earth  six  are  dry 
land.  Here,  then,  was  a  beautiful  and  fertile  country, 
wide-spread  under  the  most  benignant  skies,  rich  with 
the  '  jewels  of  the  mine,'  free  to  be  explored,  appropri- 
ated, and  above  all  christianized,  by  any  nation  capable 
of  doing  it.  Columbus  was  boine  away  by  the  fervor 
of  his  hopes.  '  May  it  pleasure  our  Lord,'  he  writes  to 
his  sovereigns,  « to  give  long  life  and  health  to  your  high- 
nesses, that  you  may  prosecute  this  so  noble  enterprise, 
in  which,  melhinks,  God  will  receive  great  service,  Spain 
vast  increase  of  grandeur,  and  all  Christians  much  con- 
solation and  delight,  since  the  name  of  our  Saviour  will 
be  divulged  throughout  these  lands.' 

His  reveries  go  far  beyond  this.  He  collected  an  as- 
tonishing variety  of  phenomena,  going  to  support,  as  he 
thought,  a  new  theory  of  the  earth,  according  to  which, 
instead  of  being  spherical,  it  was  pear-shaped.  The 
protuberant  and  tapering  part  he  located  in  the  interior 
of  his  new  continent,  and  upon  the  edge  of  this  swelling 
of  the  earth  he  had  already  arrived.  Hence,  certain 
variations  of  the  needle  were  singularly  accounted  for. 
Hence  the  climate  of  great  heat  and  unwholesome  air 
he  had  met  with,  arising,  as  he  had  told  Peter  Martyr, 
from  his  '  having  ascended  the  back  of  the  sea,  as  it 
were  ascending  a  high  mountain  towards  heaven.'  And 
so,  too,  the  altitude  of  the  north  star  increased,  and  the 
circle  it  described  appeared  larger.  And  thus  he  ex- 
plained the  great  superiority  of  the  country,  the  air,  and 
the  people,  in  freshness  and  beauty,  over  others  in  the 
same  latitude  —  such  as  those  of  Africa.  He  looked  up 
confirmations  of  this  opinion,  as  usual,  in  the  ancient 
writers.  And  as  to  holy  writ,  he  observed,  that  '  the 
sun,  when  God  made  it,  was  in  the  centre  of  the  orient,  or 
the  first  light  was  there  ;'  and  that  place  could  only  be 


396  CHARACTER  OF  COLUMBUS. 

Acre,  where  the  ocean  and  the  extreme  part  of  India 
meet  under  the  equinoctial  line,  and  at  the  supposed 
prominence  of  the  earth.  This  prominence  he  further 
supposed  to  be  of  great  height,  though  its  sides  rose 
slowly  and  smoothly,  the  shores  of  Paria  being  situated 
on  its  remote  borders.  As  one  ascended,  no  doubt,  the 
land  would  be  found  still  more  fertile,  the  scenery  more 
beautiful,  the  air  more  serene  and  celestial.  There,  in 
a  word,  must  be  the  original  abode  of  our  first  parents, 
the  terrestrial  Paradise,  and  there  must  still  be  preserved 
its  primitive  and  blissful  delights,  though  accessible  to 
mortal  feet  only  by  divine  permission.  Such  was  the 
strange  mixture  of  speculation  and  science,  of  fancy  and 
fact,  suggested  to  the  mind  of  Columbus  by  the  current 
of  fresh  water  rushing  into  the  gulf  of  Paria,  and  spring- 
ing, as  he  believed,  from  the  tree  of  life  in  the  garden 
of  Eden  ! 

We  have  made  these  remarks  in  the  train  of  an  obser- 
vation upon  the  ardent  temperament  of  Columbus,  and 
to  prove  that  his  self-command  never  was  owing  to  in- 
difference of  feeling.  And  how  much  is  our  estimate  of 
his  fortitude  and  his  magnanimity  enhanced,  when  we 
find  that  his  worst  misfortunes  and  his  worst  enemies 
came  upon  him  in  the  full  career  of  these  splendid  vi- 
sions ;  that  they  checked  and  shackled  him  while  yet  pant- 
ing, within  view,  as  he  believed,  of  the  consummation 
of  his  hopes,  his  happiness,  and  his  glory.  No  wonder 
that,  succeeding  as  far  as  he  had  succeeded,  he  should  have 
been  anxious  for  his  own  future  fame,  and  unwilling  that 
what  he  had  already  acquired  should  be  lost  10  him  in 
ignominy,  or  in  oblivion.  Hence  the  expedient  he  hit 
upon  in  the  tempest,  to  preserve  a  memorial  of  his  dis- 
covery, and  the  astonishing  resolution  with  which  he  ef- 
fected it,  and  the  great  relief  it  is  known  to  have  given 
him.  So  in  a  similar  case  on  his  return-voyage — 'I 
could  have  supported  this  evil  fortune  with  less  grief,'  he 
says, '  had  my  person  alone  been  in  jeopardy.  But  it 
was  a  cause  of  infinite  sorrow  and  trouble  to  think,  that 
after  having  been  illuminated  from  on  high  with  faith  and 
certainty  to  undertake  this  enterprise  ;  after  having  vic- 
toriously achieved  it;  and  when  on  the  point  of  convinc- 
ing my  opponents,  and  securing  to  your  highness  great 


CHARACTER  OP  COLUMBUS.  397 

glory  and  vast  increase  of  dominion,  it  should  please  the 
divine  Majesty  to  defeat  all  by  my  death.' 

It  may  be  inferred  from  this  simple  expression  of 
the  feelings  of  Columbus,  that  he  had  the  interest  of  his 
country,  as  well  as  his  own  honor,  at  heart ;  and  there  are 
other  abundant  proofs  both  of  his  patriotism  and  his  loy- 
alty during  the  whole  course  of  his  life.  Nothing,  as  it 
has  been  truly  said,  can  surpass  the  affecting  earnestness 
of  his  own  declaration  to  this  effect  —  wrung  from  him, 
it  should  be  added,  by  an  ingratitude  which  must  have 
stung  him  to  the  soul.  —  <  1  have  served  their  majesties,' 
says  he,  '  with  as  much  zeal  and  diligence  as  if  it  had 
been  to  gain  paradise;  and  if  I  have  failed  in  anything, 
it  has  been  because  my  knowledge  and  my  powers  went 
no  further.'  There  can  be  no  doubt  of  the  entire  truth 
of  this  statement,  nor  of  the  personal  attachment  which 
he  cherished  for  Isabella,  and  the  unbounded  confidence 
he  reposed  in  her  magnanimity.  '  May  it  please  the 
Holy  Trinity,'  he  says  upon  hearing  of  her  last  illness, 
'  to  restore  our  sovereign  queen  to  health  :  for  by  her 
everything  will  be  adjusted  which  is  now  in  confusion.' 
At  the  very  moment  he  was  thus  writing,  his  benefactress 
was  a  corpse,  and  he  heard  of  her  death  soon  afterwards. 
'  Let  me  remind  thee,  my  dear  son  Diego,'  he  writes 
upon  that  mournful  occasion,  'let  me  remind  thee  of 
what  is  at  present  to  be  done.  The  principal  is  to  com- 
mend affectionately,  and  with  great  devotion,  the  soul  of 
the  queen,  our  sovereign,  to  God.  tier  life  was  always 
catholic  and  holy,  and  prompt  to  all  things  in  His  holy 
service  :  for  which  reason  we  may  rest  assured  that  she 
is  received  into  His  glory,  and  beyond  the  cares  of  this 
rough  and  weary  world.  The  next  thing  is,  to  watch 
and  labor  in  all  things  for  the  service  of  our  sovereign 
the  king,  and  to  endeavor  to  alleviate  his  #rief.'  Such 
was  his  enduring  loyalty  towards  the  monarch  who  was 
so  ungratefully  neglecting  him  —  expressed,  it  should  be 
observed,  in  a  confidential  and  secret  letter  to  his  son. 
That  Ferdinand  was  not  ignorant,  ultimately  at  least,  of 
the  services  which  the  admiral  had  rendered  him  and  his 
country,  would  appear  from  the  monument  which  he  or- 
dered to  be  erected  to  his  memory, and  the  motto  engrav- 
ed upon  it, — To  CASTILE  AND  LEON  COLUMBUS  GAVE 


398  CHARACTER    OF    COLUMBUS. 

A  NEW  WORLD.  In  this  connexion  should  be  noticed 
also  the  provisions  which  the  admiral  made  for  his  native 
city,  Genoa,  as  well  as  the  injunction  of  loyalty,  and 
faithful  and  zealous  service,  '  to  the  loss  of  lite  and  es- 
tate,' which  he  left  upon  his  heirs. 

He  made  provision  in  this  same  will  for  the  poor  fe- 
males of  his  family  ;  ordering  that  a  married  person  of 
his  line,  native  of  Genoa,  should  be  respectably  main- 
tained there,  that  a  domicile  might  be  kept  open  for 
them.  As  early,  indeed,  as  his  first  residence  in  Lisbon, 
while  he  was  yet  struggling  to  maintain  his  own  house- 
hold by  his  daily  labor,  we  are  told  of  his  appropriating 
part  of  his  scanty  means  to  the  succor  of  his  aged  father 
at  Genoa,  and  to  the  education  of  his  younger  brothers. 
To  these  he  continued  the  attachment  through  life ;  and 
between  his  own  sons,  the  comfort  and  support  of  his 
declining  years,  he  ardently  cultivated  a  haimony  of  the 
same  nature.  '  To  thy  brother,'  he  writes  to  Fernando, 
'conduct  thyself  as  the  elder  brother  should  unto  the 
younger.  Thou  hast  no  other,  and  I  praise  God  that  this 
is  such  a  one  as  thou  dost  need.  Ten  brothers  would 
not  be  too  many  for  thee.  Never  have  I  found  a  better 
friend,  to  right  or  left,  than  my  brothers.'  These  simple 
expressions,  warm  from  the  heart  of  Columbus,  are  as 
affecting  as  they  are  artless. 

And  such  was  his  gratitude  and  his  affection  for  all 
that  ever  served  or  loved  him.  The  care  of  his  seamen 
was  as  much  upon  his  mind  as  the  care  of  his  children. 
'  It  would  have  been  more  supportable,'  he  says  in  the 
case  of  the  tempest  alluded  to  above,  '  had  I  not  been 
accompanied  by  others  who  had  been  drawn  on  by  my 
persuasion,  and  who  might  have  turned  back  but  for  that.' 
On  his  very  death-bed,  and  in  the  midst  of  personal  dis- 
tress, he  was  more  solicitous  that  justice  should  be  done 
to  them  than  to  himself.  He  wrote  repeatedly  to  his 
sovereigns,  urging  the  discharge  of  their  anearages; 
besides  requesting  his  son,  then  at  court,  to  exert  himself 
in  their  behalf.  '  They  are  poor,'  said  he,  '  and  it  is  now 
nearly  three  years  since  they  left  their  homes.  They  have 
endured  infinite  toils  and  perils,  and  they  bring  invaluable 
tidings,  for  which  their  majesties  ought  to  give  thanks  to 
God,  and  rejoice.'  Several  of  these  men  had  been  among 


CHARACTER  OF  COLUMBUS.  399 

the  number  of  his  enemies,  and  others  of  them  he  knew 
to  be  still  disposed  to  do  him  harm  rather  than  good. 

Nor  ought  we  to  omit  the  uniform  benevolence  with 
which  he  treated  the  poor  natives  of  the  countries  he 
discovered.  And  it  is  interesting  to  observe  the  effect  it 
had  upon  them.  On  first  landing  upon  the  shores  of 
Hispaniola,  for  example,  his  sailors  saw  a  crovyd  of  the 
Indians  flying  from  them  in  terror.  They  pursued,  and 
at  last  overtook  a  young  and  handsome  female,  and 
brought  her  off  to  the  ships.  The  admiral  soon  soothed 
her  terrors  by  his  kindness.  He  had  her  clothed;  made 
her  presents  of  beads,  brass  rings,  hawks'  bells,  and 
other  trinkets ;  and  sent  her  .back  safely  to  the  shore, 
so  pleased  with  his  finery  and  his  kindness  that  she 
would  gladly  have  remained  on  board.  On  the  following 
day,  the  admiral  despatched  nine  men  to  look  for  the 
village  to  which  this  woman  belonged.  The  natives  met 
these  men,  to  the  number  of  2000,  approaching  them  with 
slow  and  trembling  steps,  and  pausing  often,  their  hands 
upon  their  heads,  in  token  of  profound  reverence.  Another 
multitude  joined  them  soon  afterwards—  at  the  head  of 
them  was  the  husband  of  the  female  just  mentioned. 
They  brought  her  in  triumph  on  their  shoulders,  and  the 
husband  was  profuse  in  his  gratitude  for  the  civility  with 
which  she  had  been  treated,  and  the  magnificent  presents 
bestowed  upon  her.  The  Indiane,  on  becoming  more 
familiar  with  the  Spaniards,  invited  them  to  their  houses, 
on  the  bank  of  a  fine  river  in  a  beautiful  valley ;  and  set 
before  them  cassava,  bread,  fish,  roots,  and  fruits  of  va- 
rious kinds.  Having  ascertained  that  their  guests  were 
fond  of  parrots,  they  gave  them  great  numbers  of  them 
already  domesticated,  and  indeed  offered  everything  else 
they  possessed.  These  transactions  were  rumored  over 
the  neighboring  country  ;  and  when  Columbus  was  soon 
after  wrecked  upon  the  same  coast,  he  experienced  the 
benefit  of  his  kindness.  Well  might  Columbus  say  of  such 
a  people,  as  he  does  with  a  manifest  pleasure  —  '  So  loving 
so  tractable,  so  peaceable  are  they,  that  1  swear  to  your 
majesties  there  is  not  in  the  world  a  better  nation,  or  a 
better  land.'  On  every  future  occasion,  to  the  last  days 
of  his  life,  he  watched  over  the  welfare  of  the  Indians 
with  the  anxiety  of  a  father.  His  final  exertions  at  court 


400  CHARACTER   OF    COLUMBUS. 

were  in  their  behalf;  and  it  gave  him  infinite  distress, 
that  the  plans  he  had  formed  for  their  civilization  and 
happiness  were  neglected  and  counteracted  by  his  suc- 
cessors. 

An  illustrative  remark  of  some  interest,  perhaps,  may 
be  made  upon  the  extreme  susceptibility  of  Columbus  to 
the  beauties  of  nature.  '  As  I  arrived  at  this  cape,'  says 
he,  '  there  came  off  a  fragrance  so  good  and  soft,  of  the 
flowers  and  trees  of  the  land,  that  it  was  the  sweetest 
thing  in  the  world.'  '  One  could  live  there  forever,' 
he  observes  of  some  quiet  and  delicious  scene ;  and 
then  Cuba  first  broke  upon  him  like  an  elysium,  — 
'  It  is  the  most  beautiful  island,'  he  says,  '  that  eyes 
ever  beheld.'  On  another  occasion,  the  breeze  was 
blowing  from  the  shore  after  the  usual  evening  shower  ; 
and  it  brought  with  it  the  sweetness  of  the  land,  the 
distant  songs  of  the  natives,  and  the  sound  of  their  rude 
music,  as  they  were  probably  celebrating  with  their  fes- 
tive chants  the  arrival  of  the  white  men.  So  delightful 
were  these  things  to  Columbus,  that  having  spent  the 
whole  night  in  enjoying  them,  he  declared  it  had  passed 
away  like  an  hour. 

Such  was  the  character  of  Columbus  —  quite  as  extraor- 
dinary, on  the  whole,  as  his  life.  Indeed,  we  can 
scarcely  refrain,  after  reviewing  it,  from  sympathizing 
with  him  in  his  own  solemn  persuasion,  that  he  was 
raised  up,  qualified,  and  supported  by  Divine  Providence 
for  the  great  destinies  which  he  fulfilled.  Had  he  never 
lived,  however,  undoubtedly  this  continent  could  not 
have  remained  long  undiscovered.  Still,  the  glory  is  his 
that  he  went  far  beyond  his  contemporaries,  not  in  origi- 
nating the  theory  only,  but  in  fearlessly  undertaking  and 
victoriously  completing  the  prosecution  of  its  proof,  in 
the  face  of  every  moral  and  physical  opposition  and  ob- 
stacle, which  it  is  possible  to  conceive.  And  how  me- 
morable is  the  lesson  to  be  gathered  from  this  glorious 
triumph  of  naked  intellect  and  energy  !  How  should  it 
animate  and  elevate,  in  all  countries  and  in  all  climes,  the 
exertions,  the  hopes,  the  ambition  of  that  vast  portion  of 
mankind,  who  are  compelled  by  circumstances  to  be  the 
artificers  of  their  own  fortune  and  their  own  fame ! 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS 

NUMBER    XVII. 


THE  PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 
OF    ORGANIZED    BEINGS. 

MATTER  is  of  two  kinds,  organic  and  inorganic.  To 
that  which  is  arranged  into  a  certain  form,  and  endowed 
with  a  living  principle,  the  term  organized  is  applied. 
That  which  is  not  endowed  with  life  is  classed  among 
the  inorganic  substances.  All  plants  and  animals  come 
under  the  class  of  organized  substances  or  beings.  It  is 
our  object  in  the  present  tract  to  take  a  superficial  survey 
of  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms,  so  far  as  it  re- 
gards their  physical  properties  and  organic  functions. 

The  history  of  organized  beings,  or  anything  that  re- 
lates to  them,  must  be  of  interest  to  us  all :  for  from  the 
first  moment  of  our  existence,  we  form  an  important  link 
in  the  animal  chain.  The  power  of  nature  is  no  less 
manifested  around  us  than  within  us.  —  We  are  sur- 
rounded by  animals  subject  to  the  same  wants,  endowed 
with  the  same  physical  properties,  and  maintained  by  the 
same  vital  processes  with  ourselves,  —  at  the  same  time, 
they  are  subject  to  our  wills,  and  aid  us  in  our  enjoy- 
ments. 

Vegetables  as  well  as  animals  are  endowed  with  an 
organized  living  principle,  by  which  they  are  enabled  to 
select  their  food,  to  change  that  food  and  apply  it  to  their 
wants,  and  to  produce  fruit  by  which  their  species  may 
be  propagated. 

They  have  a  beginning  and  an  end,  or  in  other  words, 
they  are  born,  and  after  passing  through  various  changes, 
and  undergoing  a  limited  existence,  they  die.  If  the 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xvn.  36 


402  PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

interesting  inquiry  was  made  —  What  is  life,  or  what 
principle  is  that  by  which  water  is  changed  into  a  vege- 
table substance,  or  vegetables  into  animal?  what  prin- 
ciple is  that  which  gives  to  bodies  mobility  or  the  power 
of  motion,  which  enables  different  parts  of  the  same 
body  to  cooperate  for  the  purpose  of  producing  a  given 
effect,  and  which  prepares  them  to  maintain  a  fixed  tem- 
perature in  opposition  to  that  by  which  they  are  sur- 
rounded ?  —  we  should  answer,  that  this  is  the  living 
principle,  and  that  these  were  the  properties  by  which  we 
distinguished  living  organized  beings. 

We  know  not  what  life  is  of  itself;  but  we  know  some 
of  its  properties  or  effects,  and  we  at  once  pronounce 
that  a  living  being  or  thing  which  has  a  certain  assem- 
blage of  properties. 

Plants,  by  means  of  small  vessels  situated  in  their 
roots,  absorb  or  take  up  the  moisture  from  the  earth,  and 
this  after  having  passed  through  various  vessels  becomes 
a  part  of  the  plants.  Some  animals  live  entirely  upon 
vegetables,  yet  these  vegetables  eventually  become  a  part 
of  the  animal.  Now  this  property  which  plants  and  ani- 
mals have  of  changing  foreign  substances  into  a  part  of 
themselves,  is  a  property  belonging  only  to  living  things, 
and  it  is  therefore  called  a  vital  property.  Animals 
have  the  power  of  moving  from  one  place  to  another  in 
quest  of  food  or  pleasure  by  means  of  a  particular  appa- 
ratus which  is  subject  to  the  will.  Now  this  power  pro- 
perly belongs  only  to  living  beings,  and  this  is  also  called 
a  vital  property.  All  animals  and  plants  have  the  power, 
to  a  certain  extent,  of  maintaining  a  fixed  temperature 
in  opposition  to  that  by  which  they  are  surrounded. 
Thus  the  temperature  of  man  never  varies  more  than 
six  degrees,  although  that  of  the  atmosphere  may  vary 
a  hundred  or  more.  This  property  of  resisting  the  action 
of  cold  or  of  producing  heat,  receives  also  the  name  of 
vital  property.  These  properties  are  the  effect  or  result 
of  the  living  principle,  and  farther  than  its  effects,  we 
know  not  what  life  is.  We  all  of  us  feel  and  see  the  ef- 
fects and  influence  of  the  mental  powers,  but  farther 
than  its  effects  we  know  not  what  mind  is.  We  all  know 
that  there  is  such  a  principle  in  the  physical  world  as  at- 


OF   ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  403 

traction  or  gravitation,  but  no  one  can  tell  what  attraction 
is.  We  see  one  body  attracted  by  or  drawn  towards  an- 
other, and  this  is  the  effect  of  a  certain  cause  to  which 
we  give  the  name  of  attraction.  We  cannot  define  it 
except  by  its  results.  So  it  is  with  life.  We  know  not 
what  life  is,  but  we  know  what  are  the  effects  of  that 
something  which  we  call  life. 

There  is  a  regular  and  gradual  progress  towards  per- 
fection in  the  organic  world,  beginning  with  the  simple 
plant  and  passing  up  to  men,  and  it  forms  a  chain  so 
perfect  in  all  its  parts,  that  it  is  almost  impossible  to  de- 
scribe one  link  without  taking  into  connexion  those  with 
which  it  is  united.  It  would  seem  easy  at  first  sight  to 
tell  the  difference  between  a  plant  and  an  animal,  and 
yet  to  point  out  the  exact  difference  between  the  most 
perfect  plant  arid  the  most  imperfect  or  least  complicated 
animal,  has  been  a  task  for  the  performance  of  which  the 
greatest  philosophers  have  almost  acknowledged  their 
entire  incompetence.  If  we  should  ask  how  you  knew 
a  plant  from  an  animal,  what  answer  would  you  give? 
Perhaps  you  would  say  that  animals  have  eyes  and  ears, 
and  plants  have  not.  It  is  true  that  most  anirnals  have 
these  organs,  but  not  all.  Some  animals  are  destitute  of 
eyes,  ears,  brain,  and  even  of  a  heart.  You  might  say 
that  animals  require  food,  but  plants  require  food  as  well 
as  animals.  Plants  are  organized,  and  possess  the  prin- 
ciple of  life  to  a  certain  degree  as  well  as  animals;  but 
the  latter  have  some  properties  in  addition  to  those  that 
belong  to  plants.  Animals  have  the  power  of  locomotion, 
that  is,  the  power  of  moving  from  place  to  place,  but 
plants  are  destitute  of  this  power.  Plants  have  simple 
life  as  well  as  animals;  but  the  latter  have  something 
added  to  life,  winch  we  call  instinct.  —  All  animals  have 
desires ;  they  determine,  they  act.  —  They  eat  at  inter- 
vals, and  their  food  requires  time  to  digest;  but  plants 
receive  nourishment  instantly.  Animals  are  to  a  certain 
extent  capable  of  evading  danger  ;  they  do  this  under 
the  impulse  of  fear  ;  but  plants  are  subject  to  everything 
that  moves.  We  may  trace  the  whole  organic  chain  from 
the  simple  plant  up  to  man,  and  we  shall  find  that  there 
are  certain  physical  properties  belonging  to  all.  We 


404          PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

have  seen  how  nearly  the  simple  plant  resembles  the 
most  imperfect  animal  ;  yet  what  a  wonderful  and  mani- 
fest difference  there  is  between  the  physical  properties 
of  the  polypus  (which  belongs  to  the  lowest  order  of  ani- 
mals) and  man,  the  most  perfect  and  complicated  of  all 
organized  beings. 

Each  order  of  animals  which  fill  up  the  space,  has 
some  one  property  as  it  advances  towards  man  in  addi- 
tion to  those  possessed  by  the  order  below  it. 

Man,  although  he  is  placed  entirely  und  absolutely 
distinct  from  the  whole  organic  creation  by  his  intellec- 
tual powers,  by  his  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  vice 
and  virtue,  by  his  moral  accountability,  and  by  his  con- 
fidence of  a  still  higher  destiny  than  this  life  can  afford  ; 
yet  he  is  subject  to  the  same  physical  wants  that  distin- 
guish the  lowest  order  of  animals.  He  requires  food  as 
well  as  they,  and  in  both  it  must  pass  through  a  similar 
process  before  it  can  form  a  part  of  themselves.  There 
must  be  a  set  of  vessels  to  convey  the  fluids  from  one 
part  of  th6  body  to  another  in  both  —  one  requires  the 
influence  of  the  atmospheric  air  as  well  as  the  other,  and 
you  can  trace  through  all  their  organic  functions  a  like ' 
similarity.  It  is  these  functions  together  with  the  or- 
gans that  perform  them,  which  we  will  now  describe. 

All  organic  substances  require  food  for  the  nourish- 
ment and  development  of  their  various  organs.  Accord- 
ingly all  are  supplied  with  apparatus  by  which  the 
food  is  taken  and  converted  into  its  appropriate  texture. 
Most  plants  receive  their  nourishment  from  the  earth. 
This  nourishment  is  taken  up  by  vessels  situated  in  their 
roots,  and  is  conveyed  by  other  vessels  prepared  for  the 
purpose,  to  the  extreme  part  of  the  leaves,  where  it  un- 
dergoes the  process  of  digestion  or  assimilation,  and  is 
converted  into  a  substance  fit  for  their  growth.  From 
the  leaves  the  assimilated  fluid  is  conveyed  to  all  parts  of 
the  plant,  arid  by  appropriate  organs  is  changed  into  a 
part  of  itself.  If  there  is  any  excess  or  waste  substance 
this  is  carried  off  from  the  plant  by  vessels  prepared  for 
that  purpose.  The  arrangement  of  vessels  in  animals  is 
precisely  upon  the  same  plan  as  in  plants,  only  in  the 
former  they  are  mote  complex. 


OP    ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  405 

In  the  most  perfect  animals  and  in  man,  food  after  it 
is  masticated  or  chewed,  and  mixed  with  saliva,  which  is 
secreted  by  glands  situated  around  the  mouth,  passes 
into  the  stomach  by  means  of  a  small  tube,  called  the 
aesophcgus.  After  it  has  arrived  in  the  stomach,  it  is 
mixed  with  and  acted  upon  by  the  gastric  juice. 

The  gastric  juice  is  a  fluid  which  is  secreted  by  the 
small  vessels  of  the  stomach.  It  has  the  property  of 
preventing  in  a  remarkable  degree  the  process  of  putre- 
faction—  and  it  not  only  prevents,  but  all  substances 
hovvever  putrid  they  may  be  when  taken  into  the  sto- 
mach, are  in  a  short  time  restored  to  a  state  of  perfect 
sweetness.  Meat  is  usually  eaten  when  sweet,  but  fash- 
ion and  the  luxurious  desire  of  having  something  new, 
or  different  from  others,  has  been  temptation  enough  for 
some  even  in  civilized  life  to  keep  their  venison  as  long 
as  they  could  endure  the  smell.  The  inhabitants  of  some 
savage  countries  value  their  meat  in  proportion  as  it  ap- 
proaches putrefaction.  The  gastric  juice  possesses  like- 
wise wonderful  solvent  powers.  —  It  is  more  powerful  in 
this  reepect  however  in  some  animals  than  in  others.  — 
'  The  toughest  meat  and  the  hardest  bones  are  digested 
in  the  stomach  of  a  buzzard.  The  gastric  juice  of  a  dog 
will  dissolve  ivory.  Not  many  years  since  the  handles 
of  several  knives  wore  found  half  digested  in  the  stomach 
of  a  man  who  died  in  London  in  consequence  of  his 
hardihood  in  swallowing  them.'*  After  the  food  has 
been  reduced  to  a  pulpy  state  in  the  stomach,  it  passes 
from  it  into  the  duodenum,  or  what  may  properly  be  call- 
ed the  second  stomach,  there  to  undergo  other  important 
changes.  It  is  here  mixed  with  bile,  which  is  secreted 
by  the  liver,  and  with  the  pancreatic  juice,  which  very 
nearly  resembles  saliva  in  its  looks  and  properties,  and 
is  converted  into  a  substance  called  chyle.  The  nutri- 
tious part  of  this  chyle,  or  such  as  is  fit  to  be  converted 
into  blood  for  the  nourishment  of  the  various  parts  of  the 
body,  is  taken  up  by  a  set  of  small  vessels,  called  lac- 
teals,  (from  the  color  of  the  fluid  which  they  convey  be- 
ing that  of  milk.)  These  small  vessels  empty  their 

*  Good's  Study  of  Mediaroe. 
VOL.    I.  NO.    XVII.  36* 


400  PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

contents  into  a  tube  or  duct  which  leads  directly  to  the 
blood  vessels,  where  the  chyle  is  mixed  with  and  con- 
verted into  blood.  The  blood  is  now  conveyed  to  the 
heart,  and  this  immediately  contracting  propels  its  eon- 
tents  into  the  lungs,  where  it  undergoes  important 
changes,  which  we  shall  presently  describe. 

All  animals  do  not  eat  of  the  same  kind  of  food. 
Some  feed  upon  flesh,  others  upon  vegetables,  and  others 
upon  a  mixture  of  both.  Man  is  omnivorous.  He  can 
live  either  upon  vegetables  or  flesh,  and  his  stomach  is 
accordingly  adapted  to  that  purpose.  The  formation  of 
the  stomach,  and  the  kind  of  food  which  animals  eat, 
seem  to  have  a  great  influence  over  their  manners  and 
disposition.  The  lion,  the  tiger,  the  hyena,  &c,  live 
entirely  upon  animal  food.  —  Their  stomachs  are  small 
and  short,  their  food  is  digested  rapidly,  and  the  cravings 
of  their  appetite  necessarily  create  in  them  a  ravenous 
and  rapacious  disposition.  —  Their  cruelty,  therefore^ 
seems  to  be  the  necessary  effect  of  the  peculiar  organic 
structure  with  which  nature  has  endowed  them.  Vege- 
table food  contains  a  much  less  quantity  of  nutritious 
substance  than  animal.  It  must  require,  therefore,  a 
much  larger  quantity  of  it  to  nourish  and  sustain  the 
body,  and  it  requires  a  longer  time  for  it  to  digest.. 
Those  animals,  therefore,  that  live  entirely  upon  vegeta- 
bles, have  large  and  capacious  stomachs,  and  their  dis- 
positions are  characterized  by  mildness,  complacency 
and  innocence.  Those  animals  that  live  upon  flesh  and 
vegetables  combined,  have  not  the  small  stomach  of  the 
carnivorous  tribe,  or  the  capacious  ones  of  the  herbivo- 
rous. In  their  dispositions  they  partake  not  of  the  cruelty 
of  the  one  nor  the  mildness  of  the  other. 

All  ruminating  animals,  or  such  as  chew  the  cud,  are 
furnished  with  no  less  than  four  stomachs.  The  food 
after  it  is  masticated  passes  into  the  first  stomach,  where 
it  remains  till  it  is  partially  digested.  — It  is  then  thrown 
by  the  voluntary  efforts  of  the  animal  into  the  mouth, 
where  it  undergoes  a  second  chewing.  The  second  time 
it  is  swallowed  instead  of  passing  into  the  first  stomach 
it  goes  into  the  second,  and  so  oji  to  the  third  and  fourth. 
The  ruminating  order  of  animals  are  distinguished  for 


OF    ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  407 

their  easy  submission  and  their  temerity  Horns  are  the 
only  weapons  of  defence  with  which  they  are  provided. 
We  should  naturally  infer  the  character  of  their  disposi- 
tions from  the  configuration  of  their  bodies,  and  the 
nature  of  their  food  ;  for  it  must  be  obvious  to  all,  that 
the  diversities  of  taste  and  disposition  in  different  ani- 
mals, arise  from  a  physical  cause,  depending  upon  the 
structure  and  formation  of  their  bodies. 

The  camel  and  dromedary,  in  addition  to  the  fore_  sto- 
machs common  to  the  ruminating  tribe,  are  furnished 
with  a  bag  or  reservoir  for  the  purpose  of  holding  or  con- 
veying water.  This  reservoir  is  capable  of  containing  a 
large  quantity  of  water,  and  it  can  remain  in  it  in  as 
pure  and  limpid  a  state  as  when  taken  from  the  well :  for 
no  impurities  of  the  body  have  access  to  it.  When  the 
camel  is  thirsty  or  has  occasion  to  moisten  his  cud,  by  a 
simple  contraction  of  a  certain  muscle,  he  is  enabled  to 
force  the  water  into  the  first  stomach,  or  even  as  far  as 
the  mouth.  By  this  simple  but  curious  formation,  the 
camel  is  able  to  travel  the  sandy  desert  without  drinking. 
Both  their  constitution  and  their  structure  are  admirably 
adapted  to  the  climate  where  they  are  produced,  and  to 
the  uses  which  are  made  of  them.  The  Arabians  con- 
sider them  as  gifts  sent  from  heaven,  without  whose  as- 
sistance they  could  neither  traffic  or  travel. 

Birds  have  three  stomachs.  The  food  after  it  passes 
through  the  membranous  tube  that  leads  from  the  mouth, 
goes  into  the  first  stomach,  where  it  is  mixed  with  and 
acted  upon  by  the  fluid  that  is  secreted  by  its  coats. 
After  it  has  been  partly  digested,  it  passes  into  the  second 
stomach,  and  so  on  to  the  third,  which  is  called  the  giz- 
zard or  true  stomach,  which  consists  of  two  very  strong 
muscles  lined  with  a  thick  and  firm  membrane.  There 
are  some  birds  (as  for  instance,  rooks  and  pigeons)  that 
have  the  power  of  throwing  their  food  up  from  their  first 
stomachs  in  a  half  digested  state,  for  the  purpose  of 
feeding  their  young.  Birds,  like  quadrupeds,  are  divided 
into  herbivorous  and  carnivorous,  and  their  dispositions 
and  manners  correspond  to  the  formation  of  their  bodies, 
and  the  food  they  require.  Carnivorous  birds  have 
smaller  stomachs  than  granivorous.  Their  wings  are 


4US  PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

usually  longer  that  they  may  fly  with  more  rapidity,  and 
thereby  be  enabled  to  overtake  their  prey  ;  —  they  have 
strong  hooked  bills  and  long  sharp  claws.  The  grani- 
vorous  birds  resemble  very  much  the  herbivorous  quadru- 
peds, both  in  the  capaciousness  of  theiy  stomachs  and  in 
the  mildness  of  their  dispositions.  It  is  among  this  class 
of  birds  that  man,  ever  attentive  to  his  interest,  has  made 
selections  for  the  purpose  of  domestication.  Carnivorous 
birds  never,  with  but  one  exception,  herd  together  in 
flocks,  but  they  spend  their  time  in  some  sequestered 
spot,  or  in  the  depths  of  the  forest. 

The  influence  of  atmospheric  air  is  absolutely  neces- 
sary for  the  support  of  organic  life.  This  is  not  confined 
to  animal  life :  for  vegetables  cease  to  perform  their 
functions  when  deprived  of  it,  and  the  seed  will  not 
sprout  unless  it  comes  in  contact  with  this  elastic  but  all 
important  fluid.  Plants  have  no  particular  apparatus  by 
which  they  respire,  but  they  receive  the  air  through  every 
pore.  Animals  are  furnished  with  a  particular  apparatus 
tor  the  purpose  of  admitting  air  into  the  internal  parts 
of  the  body.  In  man,  and  the  most  perfect  animals,  re- 
spiration, or  the  act  of  breathing,  is  carried  on  by  means 
of  organs  called  lungs,  which  are  composed  of  an  infi- 
nite number  of  air-cells  and  minute  blood-vessels.  Re- 
spiration consists  of  inspiration  or  the  act  of  drawing  in 
the  air  into  the  lungs,  and  expiration  or  the  act  of  throw- 
ing it  out.  At  each  inspiration  the  little  cells  of  the 
lungs  are  filled  with  air.  These  cells  are  surrounded  by 
minute  blood-vessels,  and  thus  the  blood  which  is  thrown 
from  the  heart  and  the  air  which  enters  the  lungs,  are 
made  to  approximate  each  other. 

Through  the  influence  of  the  air  which  fills  the  cells, 
the  blood  in  the  minute  vessels  is  so  operated  upon  that 
it  is  deprived  of  its  dark  color,  or  is  changed  from  a  dark 
to  a  light  red.  This  change  takes  place  by  the  blood 
being  deprived  of  its  impurities,  which,  if  allowed  to  cir- 
culate through  the  body,  would  not  only  unfit  it  for 
nourishment  but  life  would  soon  be  destroyed.  The  air 
which  enters  the  lungs  pure,  returns  from  them  loaded 
with  impurities.  Changing  the  impure  into  pure  blood,. 
gr  relieving  it  of  a  poisonous  substance,,  are  not  all  the 


OF    ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  409 

beneficial  results  of  respiration.  It  is  supposed  that  by 
the  action  of  the  air  on  the  blood,  the  latter  in  some  way 
receives  an  increased  quantity  of  heat,  or  caloric,  by  which 
means  the  body  maintains  its  fixed  standard  of  tempera- 
ture. 

All  animals  furnished  with  lungs  have  the  power  of 
expressing  their  wants,  their  desires,  their  pleasures  and 
their  pains,  by  words  or  sounds  peculiar  to  each  species. 

Birds,  although  they  are  furnished  with  lungs  as  well 
as  quadrupeds,  by  a  wise  provision  of  nature,  are  enabled 
to  fill  almost  every  part  of  their  bodies  with  air.  They 
have  air  cells  which  communicate  with  their  lungs  situa- 
ted in  almost  all  parts  of  their  bodies.  They  are  situated 
not  only  in  the  soft  parts  but  their  bones  are  furnished 
with  them.  Mr  Hunter  tied  up  the  natural  air  tube  (the 
Trackia)  of  a  hen,  and  made  an  opening  into  one  of  the 
bones  furnished  with  a  cell  and  the  function  of  respiration 
was  carried  on  by  means  of  it.  Mr  Hunter  often  having 
made  this  and  various  after  experiments  to  prove  that 
air  cells  did  exist,  thought  that  this  was  a  provision  which 
nature  had  made,  that  birds  being  made  comparatively 
light  by  being  tilled  with  air,  and  this  after  it  had  been 
dilated  by  the  natural  heat  of  the  body,  would  perform 
with  much  more  ease  their  aerial  journeys.  He  after- 
wards however  found  that  the  ostrich  which  does  not  fly, 
was  abundantly  furnished  with  them,  while  the  bat  which 
does,  had  no  such  peculiarity  of  structure. 

Insects  breathe  through  small  pores  situated  on  the 
sides  of  their  bodies  or  on  their  backs.  Amphibious 
animals,  or  such  as  can  live  in  two  elements,  have 
lungs  which  extend  the  whole  length  of  their  bodies. 

Animals  that  reside  in  the  water,  require  air  as  well 
as  those  that  live  on  the  land.  The  cetaceous  tribe,  such  as 
the  whale,  are  furnished  with  lungs  like  quadrupeds,  but 
most  fish  are  provided  with  gills,  which  answer  the  pur- 
pose of  lungs.  The  water  is  made  to  pass  over  a  small 
membrane,  and  the  air  which  it  contains  or  the  oxygen 
of  the  water  comes  nearly  in  contact  with  the  blood,  and 
thus  the  important  change  is  effected.  The  surface  that 
is  exposed  to  the  action  of  the  air  in  fish,  and  the  blood 
necessary  to  supply  the  wants  of  the  body  are  much  less 


410  PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

than  in  birds  or  quadrupeds,  for  being  situated  in  a  fluid 
whose  specific  gravity  is  nearly  equal  to  that  of  their 
bodies,  it  must  require  much  less  muscular  exertion  to 
move  in  that  fluid  than  in  the  air  or  upon  the  surface  of 
the  earth. 

Experiments  have  proved  that  full  grown  persons 
respire  twentyfour  thousand  cubic  inches  of  air  per  hour, 
or  five  hundred  and  ninetysix  thousand  per  day.  We 
will  suppose  that  each  time  the  heart  contracts  it  throws 
one  half  ounce  of  blood  to  the  lungs,  which,  by  the  way, 
is  a  small  calculation  :  now  we  know  that  the  heart  con- 
tracts on  an  average  about  seventy  times  in  a  minute ; 
thus  thirtyfive  ounces  of  blood  must  be  sent  from  ihe 
heart  to  the  lungs  per  minute,  making  more  than  120 
pounds  per  hour,  or  2880  pounds  per  day.  Therefore 
the  air  cells,  which  are  extremely  delicate,  in  the  course 
of  twentyfour  hours  sustain  the  weight  of  about  thirtynine 
hogsheads  of  air,  and  the  minute  blood  vessels  2880 
pounds  of  blood  in  the  same  length  of  time. 

This  estimate  will  give  you  some  idea  of  the  wonderful 
power  which  these  tender  organs  possess,  and  of  their 
importance  in  the  animal  economy.  In  man  there  is  a 
strong  and  intimate  connexion  between  the  heart  and 
lungs.  If  we  cease  to  respire  the  heart  ceases  to  act,  or 
if  the  blood  does  not  undergo  its  proper  change  in  the 
lungs,  that  is,  if  it  is  not  changed  from  a  dark  to  a  light 
red,  or  more  properly,  if  it  is  not  decarbonized,  all  the 
organs  of  the  body  as  it  were,  immediately  take  cognizance 
of  it,  the  heart  ceases  to  act  and  the  man  dies.  The 
question  may  be  asked,  how  the  bloed  coming  in  contact, 
or  nearly  so,  with  the  air,  can  be  so  powerfully  operated 
upon  as  that  this  change  shall  take  place. 

We  know  that  this  change  does  take  place,  and  we 
know  also  that  we  cannot  exist  unless  it  does;  but  how 
this  is  effected,  what  is  the  power  or  mode  by  which  it  is 
done,  we  know  not.  We  can  only  say  that  it  is  a  vital 
process  performed  by  a  vital  power.  It  surely  has  been 
supposed  that  the  oxygen  of  the  atmosphere  and  the  car- 
bon in  the  dark  or  venous  blood,  when  coming  in  contact) 
or  nearly  so,  united,  and  thus  formed  carbonic  acid  gas, 
which  was  expelled  from  the  lungs  at  each  expiration. 


OF    ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  411 

It  is  the  carbon  which  makes  the  venous  blood,  or  that 
which  circulates  in  the  veins  dark,  and  when  it  is  de- 
prived of  it,  it  becomes  light  red  or  arterial  blood. 

We  have  observed  that  only  some  of  the  higher  classes 
of  animals  and  men  were  furnished  with  proper  lungs, 
but  we  have  endeavored  to  show  at  the  same  time,  that 
air  was  as  absolutely  necessary  for  the  support  of  one  or- 
ganized being  as  another,  as  necessary  for  plants  as 
animals,  although  the  organs  through  which  they  receive 
it  may  materially  differ. 

We  have  thus  described  two  functions  that  belong  to 
all  organized  living  beings,  viz.  that  of  assimilation  or 
digestion  and  respiration.  We  now  come  to  a  third, 
which  is  called  the  circulatory  function,  which  consists 
in  the  circulation  of  the  fluids  through  the  body.  The 
circulatory  function  is  carried  on  by  means  of  vessels  ar- 
ranged in  proper  order.  We  have  in  part  been  obliged 
to  anticipate  this  subject  in  order  to  convey  a  general 
idea  of  the  importance  of  atmospheric  air. 

The  circulatory  function  in  man  includes  those  vessels 
that  convey  the  blood,  which  consist  of  a  heart,  arteries 
and  veins.  The  heart  is  the  central  organ  from  which 
the  blood  is  thrown  and  to  which  it  returns.  In  man  it 
has  four  cavities,  two  of  which  are  called  ventricles,  and 
two  auricles.  The  two  auricles  occupy  the  base  or  the 
superior  and  posterior  portion,  and  the  ventricles  the  in- 
ferior. On  each  side  the  auricle  corresponds  with  its 
corresponding  ventricle.  In  the  right  cavities  are  con- 
tained the  dark  or  venous  blood  which  is  to  be  sent  to  the 
lungs,  there  to  be  submitted  to  the  action  of  the  air,  and 
in  the  left  the  light  or  arterial  blood  which  has  undergone 
this  action  and  which  is  to  be  sent  to  all  parts  of  the 
body.  The  former  receive  therefore  the  blood  from  all 
parts  of  the  body,  and  by  contracting  propel  it  to  the 
lungs ;  the  latter  receive  it  from  the  lungs  and  send  it  to 
all  parts  of  the  body.  Those  vessels  that  convey  the  blood 
from  the  heart  are  called  arteries,  and  those  that  return 
it  to  the  heart  are  called  veins. 

In  fish  the  heart  has  only  two  cavities,  one  auricle  and 
one  ventricle.  The  blood  is  received  from  all  parts  of 
the  body  into  the  auricle,  this  throws  it  into  the  ven- 


412  PROPERTIES   ANB    FUNCTIONS 

tricle,  from  which  proceeds  a  vessel  that  conveys  it  to  the 
gills.  In  the  gills  the  blood  undergoes  the  same  changes 
as  in  the  lungs  of  men.  After  the  change  in  the  blood 
is  effected,  instead  of  returning  to  the  heart  it  is  taken  up 
by  small  vessels  and  conveyed  directly  to  all  parts  of  the 
body.  Insects  have  no  real  heart,  but  they  are  supplied 
with  a  small,  simple,  alternately  contracting  vessel,  which 
answers  the  purpose  of  a  heart.  Plants  have  a  circulatory 
system  which  consists  of  vessels,  by  means  of  which  the 
nutriment  is  conveyed  from  the  earth  to  the  leaves,  and 
from  the  leaves  after  it  is  assimilated  to  all  the  organs  of 
which  they  are  composed.  This  system  in  plants  is  as 
simple  as  it  would  be  in  man,  if  the  food  which  enters 
the  mouth  pas'sed  into  the  stomach,  and  there  after  it  had 
undergone  the  process  of  assimilation,  it  was  taken  up  by 
small  vessels  and  distributed  to  all  parts  of  the  body  with- 
out being  compelled  to  pass  through  a  heart  or  lungs. 

Theopinionof  the  circulation  of  the  blood  through  the 
body  was  loosely  started  by  some  of  the  early  writers ; 
but  to  obtain  sufficient  proof  to  support  the  doctrine  was 
so  difficult  that  it  was  abandoned  almost  as  soon  as  con- 
ceived. Serveto,  who  lived  in  the  16th  century,  imper- 
fectly taught  it  by  pointing  out  the  smaller  circulation,  or 
that  through  the  lun-s;  but  the  illustrious  Harvey,  in  the 
17th  century,  established  it  by  the  most  satisfactory  ex- 
periments. He,  like  all  great  discoverers,  had  to  combat 
the  prejudices  of  mankind,  but  he  had  the  happiness  be- 
fore his  death  to  know  that  his  doctrine  was  almost  uni- 
versally acknowledged.  We  rely  at  the  present  day  upon 
the  same  proofs  that  Harvey  did  for  the  support  of  this 
doctrine.  The  proofs  are  deduced  from  the  disposition 
of  the  heart  and  blood  vessels,  and  from  the  following  ex- 
periments. '  If  we  open  an  artery  or  a  vessel  that  carries 
the  blood  from  the  heart,  the  blood  which  comes  from  the 
puncture  flows  in  a  direction  from  the  heart,  but  if  we 
open  a  vein  or  a  vessel  that  conveys  the  blood  to  the 
heart  the  blood  flows  in  an  opposite  direction.  If  we 
examine  with  a  microscope  the  almost  transparent  vessels 
of  frogs  or  other  cold  blooded  animals,  we  see  the  blood 
flowing  from  the  heart  into  the  arteries — from  these  into 
the  veins,  and  from  the  veins  back  again  to  the  heart — 
thus  completing  its  circular  career.' 


OF   ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  413 

We  have  thus  considered  the  three  functions  that  be- 
long to  all  organized  beings,  to  plants  as  well  as  animals. 
We  will  now  consider  some  of  those  which  are  only  pos- 
sessed by  animals.  We  have  before  observed  that  ani- 
mals were  distinguished  from  plants  by  their  power  of  loco- 
motion or  the  power  of  moving  from  place  to  place  in 
search  of  food  or  pleasure. 

All  objects  with  which  we  are  acquainted  are  subject 
to  the  laws  of  motion,  but  so  far  as  it  regards  motion 
they  are  divided  into  two  classes;  one  class  includes  all 
those  objects  that  are  endowed  with  a  self-moving  power 
by  means  of  a  particular  apparatus  which  compose  a  part 
of  themselves.  The  other  class  includes  all  matter  which 
has  not  the  power  within  itself  of  moving  itself,  but  which 
requires  some  external  force  to  put  it  in  motion,  and 
when  once  in  motion  requires  some  external  resistance 
to  stop  it.  The  first  class  is  composed  of  animated  or- 
ganized beings,  and  the  second  of  all  unorganized  sub- 
stances. The  force  with  which  unorganized  matter 
resists  any  change  is  proportioned  to  the  quantity  which 
a  body  contains.  It  is  perfectly  indifferent  to  rest  or 
motion,  and  this  indifference  is  the  natural  consequence 
of  the  most  absolute  inactivity. 

The  power  of  beginning  motion  without  the  aid  of  ex- 
ternal influence  belongs  only  to  active,  intelligent,  organ- 
ized beings.  Animals  having  the  power  to  move  wherever 
their  wants  dictate  or  their  desires  prompt,  must  be  en- 
dowed with  a  particular  apparatus  by  which  this  power"  is 
effected. 

This  apparatus  is  called  muscular.  There  are  a  great 
number  of  muscles  in  our  bodies,  and  each  muscle  is 
composed  of  long  parallel  fibres,  usually  of  a^red  color, 
soft,  irritable  and  contractile.  The  muscular  substance 
is  what  is  usually  called  red-flesh.  All  muscles  are  ca- 
pable of  contracting,  and  it  is  by  means  of  this  power 
that  all  the  motions  of  the  body  are  effected.  It  is  by 
means  of  these  that  we  walk,  move  our  hands,  chew  our 
food,  and  even  breathe.  The  heart  is  composed  of  mus- 
cular fibres,  and  it  is  by  their  powerful  contraction  that 
the  blood  is  thrown  to  the  lungs  and  to  all  parts  of  the 
body.  If  we  raise  one  hand  to  the  head  and  place  the 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xvii.  37 


414          PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

other  upon  the  middle  of.  the  arm  between  the  shoulder 
and  elbow,  we  shall  feel  a  muscle  contract  and  form  a 
hard  cord.  This  muscle  is  attached  to  the  shoulder  bone 
at  one  end,  and  at  the  other,  to  one  of  the  bones  of  the 
fore  arm,  and  thus  when  it  contracts  or  shortens,  the  ne- 
cessary effect  is  to  bend  the  arm  at  the  elbow  and  bring 
the  hand  to  the  head. 

In  man  and  the  highest  order  of  animals  there  are  two 
classes  of  muscles,  those  which  contract  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  will  and  those  which  contract  independent  of 
it.  The  former  are  called  voluntary  and  the  latter  in- 
voluntary. The  heart  regularly  contracts  from  the  first 
moments  of  our  existence  to  the  last,  as  well  when  we 
are  asleep  as  awake.  It  is  not  in  the  least  influenced  by 
the  will.  The  regular  contractions  of  the  stomach  also 
are  entirely  and  absolutely  independent  of  volition.  The 
process  of  respiration  is  usually  performed  by  means  of 
the  involuntary  muscles.  We  can  for  a  few  momenta 
cease  to  respire  if  we  will,  and  if  the  involuntary  muscles 
or  the  nerves  leading  to  them  are  involved  in  any  disease 
which  unfits  them  for  the  performance  of  their  duty,  respi- 
ration may  be  performed  under  the  control  of  the  will, 
but  this  is  extremely  laborious  and  cannot  be  continued 
for  any  great  length  of  time.  Thence  it  would  seem  that 
the  organs  of  respiration  were  furnished  with  voluntary 
and  involuntary  muscles,  and  this  fact  has  been  proved 
by  the  most  satisfactory  experiments. 

Locomotion  is  performed  altogether  by  means  of  the 
voluntary  muscles.  We  will  to  move  and  immediately 
these  muscles  are  in  action. 

If  the  contraction  of  the  heart  and  the  muscles  of  re- 
spiration were  under  the  entire  control  of  the  will,  the 
constant  and  unremitted  exertions  of  the  mind  would  be 
required  —  there  would  be  no  time  for  rest  or  sleep;  for  if 
there  was  a  suspension  of  consciousness  there  would  of 
course  be  a  suspension  of  circulation  and  respiration,  and 
immediate  death  would  be  the  consequence. 

Animals  are  alone  endowed  with  a  proper  muscular 
apparatus,  but  some  plants  have  the  power  of  motion  in 
an  eminent  degree.  Their  fibres  therefore  must  have  the 
power  of  contraction,  and  they  must  be  endowed  with 


OF    ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  415 

some  irritability.  If  the  leaves  of  a  sensitive  plant  are 
touched  they  immediately  shrink,  and  with  the  branches 
to  which  they  are  attached  bend  towards  the  earth.  The 
leaves  of  the  moving  plant,  a  native  of  the  East  Indies, 
are  so  excited  by  the  rays  of  the  sun  that  they  are  con- 
stantly in  motion  while  exposed  to  them.  The  plant 
called  Dionca  muscipula  or  Venus'  fly  trap,  affords  an- 
other example  of  rapid  vegetable  motion.  The  leaves  of 
this  plant  are  armed  with  rows  of  small  prickles,  and  are 
covered  by  small  glands  which  secrete  a  sweetish  liquid 
that  is  extremely  pleasant  to  flies.  When  a  fly  comes  in 
contact  with  a  leaf  the  two  lobes  rise  up,  the  prickles  are 
fastened  together,  and  the  unwary  animal  is  destroyed. 
The  motion  of  animals  is  somewhat  influenced  by  their 
specific  gravity.  A  flea  can  leap  some  hundred  times  its 
length,  and  spiders  and  worms  fall  with  impunity  from 
immense  heights.  If  large  animals  should  leap  or  fall 
as  far  in  proportion  to  their  weight  or  gravity,  they  would 
be  crushed  to  atoms. 

We  have  said  that  the  voluntary  muscles  were  under 
the  control  and  influence  of  the  will.  The  question  may 
now  be  asked  from  what  organ  does  the  will  emanate, 
and  what  are  the  means  of  communication  between  that 
organ  and  the  muscles?  The  brain  which  is  contained 
within  the  bony  cranium  is  allowed  by  all  to  be  the  seat 
where  all  the  faculties  of  the  mind  in  man  and  of  instinct 
in  animals  reside.  From  the  brain  and  spinal  column 
(which  is  a  mere  continuation  of  the  brain)  proceed 
fortytwo  pair  of  shining  inelastic  cords  called  nerves, 
which  differ  from  each  other  in  size,  color,  and  consist- 
ence. These  nerves  send  off  innumerable  branches 
which  are  distributed  like  a  net  work  over  every  part  of 
the  body.  They  are  the  immediate  organs  of  sensation 
as  well  as  of  muscular  motion.  If  the  nerves  which  go 
to  the  arm  were  cut  off,  the  muscles  below  the  incision 
would  lose  all  power  of  motion,  and  the  skin  of  sensation. 
If  the  nervous  communication  between  the  brain  and  the 
eye,  or  ear,  or  tongue,  were  cut  off,  we  could  no  more 
see,  or  hear,  or  taste.  When  we  receive  an  impression 
on  the  finger,  this  impression  is  conveyed  to  the  brain  by 
means  of  nerves,  and  the  mind  takes  cognizance  of  it. 


416  PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

So  when  an  object  strikes  the  eye,  or  sound  the  ear,  the 
impression  is  communicated  to  the  brain,  and  we  then 
see  or  hear.  The  will  in  like  manner  conveys  its  stimu- 
lus along  the  nerve  to  the  voluntary  muscles,  and  imme- 
diately they  contract,  and  motion  is  produced.  Three 
things  are  necessary  either  for  the  mind  to  be  acted  upon 
by  external  objects  or  in  its  turn  to  act  upon  them.  As 
it  regards  the  senses  there  must  be,  1st,  an  external  sen- 
sitive organ  adapted  to  the  property  of  the  body  to  be 
ascertained.  2d.  There  must  be  a  nervous  cord  to  trans- 
mit this  sensation  to  the  central  mass;  and  3d,  there 
must  necessarily  be  a  central  organ  to  perceive.  As  it 
regards  the  action  of  the  wilt  upon  the  voluntary  muscles, 
there  is  an  organ  to  will,  a  nervous  cord  to  communicate 
it  to  the  muscle,  and  consequently  a  muscle  to  contract. 

To  complete  therefore  the  nervous  system,  three  dis- 
tinct organs  are  found  in  man  and  the  most  perfect 
animals.  For  example,  in  the  eye  we  have  an  optical 
instrument,  situated  before  a  nervous  agent  to  collect  the 
image  of  the  object  to  be  perceived  and  to  picture  this 
upon  the  retina,  the  brain  being  made  sensible  of  the 
impression  of  this  image  by  the  agency  of  the  optic  nerve, 
which  is  a  medium  of  communication  between  the  sense 
and  sensorium.  An  animal  deprived  of  the  external 
senses  may  be  said  to  live  within  himself,  as  he  is  desti- 
tute of  all  communication  with  the  world  around  him. 
To  him  color,  sound,  heat  and  cold  give  no  pleasure, 
neither  do  they  produce  pain.  The  lower  classes  of 
animals,  as  for  example  the  zoophytes  and  worms,  gene- 
rally possess  but  one  rudimentory  sense,  viz.  that  of  feel- 
ing, which  is  exercised  by  an  imperfectly  organized  in- 
tegument covering  the  body.  The  nervous  system  is, 
strictly  speaking,  the  most  striking  peculiarity  of  animals, 
and  constitutes  more  especially  what  is  called  the  animal 
life  and  the  life  of  relation,  by  means  of  which  the  animal 
extends  his  relations  and  lives  not  only  within  himself 
but  in  connexion  with  surrounding  objects. 

The  human  brain  exceeds  that  of  the  most  perfect 
animals  in  the  number  and  perfect  development  of  its 
parts,  none  being  found  in  any  animal  which  man  has  not, 
while  several  parts  found  in  the  brain  of  man  are  either 


OF    ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  417 

reduced  in  size  or  are  entirely  wanting  in  various  ani- 
mals. l  It  is  said  that  by  laking  away,  diminishing,  or 
changing  proportions,  you  might  form  from  the  brain  of 
man  that  of  any  other  animal,  while  there  is  no  animal 
of  whose  brain  you  could  in  like  manner  compose  that  of 
man.  The  brain  in  man  approaches  more  nearly  a  spher- 
ical form  than  that  in  any  animal,  and  the  nerves  are 
smaller  in  proportion  to  the  brain.  The  brain  diminishes 
and  the  nerves  increase  from  man  downwards.'  Plants 
have  no  nervous  system,  and  the  lowest  order  of  animals 
have  but  imperfectly  developed  nerves,  while  they  are 
destitute  of  a  brain. 

Men  and  the  most  perfect  animals,  in  fact  all  vertebral 
animals,  such  as  are  furnished  with  a  spinal  marrow,  have 
five  senses,  viz.  seeing,  hearing,  tasting,  smelling  and 
feeling;  but  we  have  before  observed, that  the  only  sense 
which  pervades  the  whole  animal  creation,  was  that  of 
feeling.  M.  Cuvier  thinks  that  the  sense  of  feeling  is 
the  sensorial  power  manifested  in  its  most  simple  state, 
and  that  all  the  other  senses  are  mere  modifications  of  it. 
The  sense  of  feeling  in  man  is  more  strongly  developed 
in  the  tongue,  lips,  and  ends  of  the  fingers  than  in  any 
other  part  of  the  body.  In  cows  and  horses  the  tongue 
and  nostrils  appear  to  be  the  local  organs  of  touch.  In 
the  mole  and  pig  the  snout  appears  to  be  the  peculiar 
organ  which  performs  the  office  of  feeling.  The  local 
organ  of  feeling  in  many  of  the  feathered  tribe  appears 
to  be  situated  in  the  membrane  that  lines  their  mandibles. 

In  the  opossum  it  exists  in  the  end  of  the  tail ;  in  in- 
sects in  their  antennae,  and  in  worms  in  their  tentacula. 
It  is  not  determined  whether  the  fish  and  amphibious  ani- 
mals are  furnished  with  any  local  organ  of  the  sense  of 
feeling  or  not.  We  would  here  remark,  that  although 
every  sensation  may  be  comprehended  under  the  term 
feeling,  yet  when  we  speak  of  it  as  a  distinct  sense,  we 
would  restrict  it  to  the  different  sensations  excited 
by  different  substances  when  applied  to  the  integument 
which  covers  the  body  of  men  and  animals,  or  more 
particularly  to  those  organs  which  we  have  mentioned 
as  being  local,  but  which  perform  in  an  eminent  degree 
the  office  of  feeling.  It  is  certain  that  in  man,  the 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xvn.         37* 


PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

eyes,  ears,  tongue,  lips,  nose,  and  ends  of  the  fingers  are 
more  abundantly  supplied  with  nerves  than  any  other,  part 
of  the  body.  The  immediate  instruments  of  sensation  are 
small  nervous  papilla;,  which  are  soft  pulpy  terminations  of 
the  nerves.  These  papillae  cover  the  whole  surface  of  the 
skin,  but  they  may  be  seen  more  distinctly,  for  they  are 
more  fully  developed  on  the  tongue  and  ends  of  the  fingers 
than  any  other  organs  which  we  can  without  difficulty  ex- 
amine with  the  naked  eye.  '  When  examining  or  enjoying 
an  object,'  says  Smellie,  '  it  is  natural  to  inquire  what  are 
the  changes  produced  in  the  nervous  papillae  or  organs 
of  sensation.  If  an  object  possessed  of  agreeable  feel- 
ings is  perceived,  the  nervous  papillae  instantly  extend 
themselves,  and  from  a  state  of  flaccidity  become  com- 
paratively rigid.  This  extension  of  the  papillae  is  not 
conjectural,  but  it  is  founded  on  anatomical  examination, 
and  may  be  felt  by  persons  of  acute  aad  discerning  sensa- 
tion. When  a  man  in  the  dark  inclines  to  examine  any 
substance  in  order  to  discover  its  figure  or  other  qualities, 
he  perceives  a  kind  of  rigidity  at  the  tips  of  his  fingers. 
If  they  are  kept  long  in  this  state,  the  tension  of  the 
nervous  papillae  will  produce  a  kind  of  pain  or  anxiety 
which  it  is  impossible  to  describe.  If  a  small  insect 
crawls  on  a  man's  hand  when  the  papillae  are  flaccid,  its 
movements  are  not  perceived  ;  but  if  he  sees  the  animal 
he  immediately  extends  his  papilla),  and  feels  all  its  mo- 
tions. If  a  body  be  present,  which  in  the  common  state 
of  the  nerves  has  scarcely  any  sensible  odor,  by  ex- 
tending the  papilla}  of  the  nostrils  an  agreeable,  disa- 
greeable or  indifferent  smell  will  be  perceived.  When 
two  persons  are  whispering,  and  we  wish  to  know  what 
is  said,  we  stretch  the  papillae  of  the  ear,  and  an  impres- 
sion is  made  on  them.  If  the  sound  is  too  low  to  make 
an  impression  on  the  papillae  in  their  natural  flaccid 
state,  we  are  apt  to  overstretch  them,  and  this  produces 
a  painful  or  disagreeable  feeling.  When  we  examine  a 
minute  object  with  the  naked  eye,  a  pain  is  propagated 
over  every  part  of  that  organ.  Several  causes  may  con- 
cur in  producing  this  pain,  such  as  the  dilating  of  the 
pupil  or  the  adjusting  of  the  crystalline  lens ;  but  the 
chief  cause  must  be  ascribed  to  the  preternatural  exten-- 


OP   ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  419 

sion  of  the  papillae  of  the  retina,  the  substance  c  oh 
is  a  mere  congeries  of  nervous  terminations,'  This  cir- 
cumstance confirms  a  former  remark,  that  the  immediate 
organs  of  sensation  were  more  copiously  supplied  with 
nervous  papiihe  than  those  parts  whose  uses  require  no- 
such  exquisite  sensibility  ;  for  a  distinction  in  this  respect 
is  observable  even  among  the  sensitive  organs  themselves. 
The  eye  is  furnished  with  more  of  these  papillce  than 
any  other  organ,  and  this  would  seem  a  necessary  provi- 
sion when  we  consider  the  minuteness  of  the  particles 
of  light,  the  impressions  of  which  that  organ  is  fitted 
to  receive. 

'  The  pleasure  or  pain  produced  by  the  sense  of  touch, 
depends  chiefly  on  the  friction  or  number  of  impulses 
made  upon  the  papillae.  Embrace  any  agreeable  body 
with  your  hand,  and  allow  it  to  remain  perfectly  at  rest, 
and  you  will  find  the  pleasure  not  half  so  exquisite  as 
when  the  hand  is  moved  backwards  and  forwards  upon 
its  surface.  Apply  the  hand  to  a  piece  of  velvet,  and  it 
is  merely  agreeable  ;  but  rest  it  repeatedly  on  the  surface 
of  the  cloth,  and  the  pleasant  feeling  will  be  augmented 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  impulses  on  the  papillae. 
When  a  man  is  hungry,  the  sight  or  idea  of  palatable 
food  raises  the  whore  papillae  of  his  tongue  and  stomach. 
From  this  circumstance  he  is  highly  regaled  by  eating.' 
But  if  he  eats  the  same  species  of  food  when  his  stomach 
is  in  a  less  fit  state  to  receive  it,  the  papillae  remain  in  a 
flaccid  state,  and  the  pleasure  is  lessened.  By  the  sense 
of  touch  we  are  enabled  to  ascertain  some  of  the  most 
important,  properties  of  bodies,  such  as  their  softness  or 
hardness,  their  rough  or  smooth  state,  their  figure  and 
their  size  ;  and  it  is  less  deceptive  than  either  of  the 
other  senses,  because  in  order  to  effect  it  bodies  must 
come  in  contact  with  the  organ  or  organs  which  perform 
it,  whereas  in  the  other  senses  some  intermediate  sub- 
stance may  serve  to  modify  or  alter  the  impressions,  and 
thus  mislead  the  judgment. 

The  senses  of  tasting  and  smelling  are  more  nearly 
assimilated  to  the  sense  of  feeling  than  those  of  seeing 
and  hearing  ;  for  bodies  must  come  in  contact  with  the 
papillae  of  the  tongue  or  palate  in  order  that  we  ma,j 


420          PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

taste;  with  the  olfactory  nerves  that  we  may  smell, 
as  well  as  in  contact  with  the  papillae  of  the  skin 
that  we  may  feel,  although  to  the  former,  and  especially 
to  the  olfactories,  a  substance  must  be  presented  in  a 
more  attenuated  form. 

The  sense  of  taste  in  the  most  perfect  animals  resides 
in  the  papillae  of  the  tongue,  and  palate.  In  insects  it 
is  supposed  by  some  naturalists  to  reside  in  the  antennae 
in  combination  with  the  sense  of  touch.  The  duck  tribe 
are  capable  of  distinguishing  the  quality  of  their  food  in 
the  mud,  and  it  is  difficult  to  tell  whether  the  sense  of 
taste  resides  in  their  mandibles  together  with  that  of 
smell  and  touch  or  not. 

The  organ  of  taste  is  so  situated  that  it  may  be  truly 
called  the  guardian  of  the  stomach  ;  for  before  food  can 
enter  that  organ,  its  noxious  or  its  salutary  qualities  are 
subjected  to  its  particular  scrutiny.  The  tongue  must  be 
moistened  with  saliva,  and  the  food  must  partially  be  dis- 
solved before  the  sense  of  taste  can  be  excited,  or  the 
qualities  of  the  food  ascertained.  If  the  tongue  is  per- 
fectly dry,  as  it  sometimes  is  rendered  by  disease,  the 
sense  of  taste  is  vitiated,  if  not  annihilated.  This  sense, 
like  all  the  other  senses  in  man,  is  often  perverted,  so 
that  substances  which  were  originally  unpleasant,  become 
highly  delicious  and  agreeable.  This  is  never  the  case 
with  animals.  —  Their  taste  remains  as  pure  as  when 
originally  formed.  —  They  are  not  subjected  to  the  ca- 
prices of  fashion  or  fastidious  flights  of  ever  varying 
fancy.  An-imals  have  no  compounds,  but  they  eat  their 
food  in  its  simple  state.  They  know  of  no  medley  messes, 
in  which  a  poison  may  be  swallowed  without  perceiving  it. 

In  such  animals  as  have  nostrils,  the  sense  of  smell 
resides  in  the  nerves  that  are  distributed  on  the  mem- 
brane which  lines  them.  The  acuteness  of  this  sense 
differs  in  different  animals.  The  dog  has  it  in  a  much 
more  perfect  state  than  man.  It  is  generally  found  that 
this  sense  in  its  acuteness  is  in  proportion  to  the  extent 
of  the  membrane  that  is  exposed.  In  dogs,  and  in  most 
quadrupeds,  it  possesses  a  variety  of  folds,  whereby  a 
large  surface  is  exposed.  In  birds  it  extends  to 
the  extreme  points  of  the  nostrils.  In  the  elephant 


OF    ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  421 

this  membrane  extends  the  whole  length  of  its  pro- 
boscis. 

In  most  fish  the  nostrils  are  double  ;  but  in  a  few  they 
are  quadruple.  Their  sense  of  smell  must  therefore  be 
very  acute,  and  afford  them  a  powerful  inlet  of  pleasure. 
Some  kinds  of  fish  are  extremely  fond  of  aromatic  sub- 
stances, and  are  thereby  easily  led  into  the  snares  of  the 
angler,  when  he  is  disposed  to  take  advantage  of  their 
weakness. 

The  blowing  holes  of  the  cetaceous  tribes  are  sup- 
posed to  be  their  organs  of  smell ;  but  this  is  by 
no  means  certain.  This  sense  is  supposed  to  exist  in 
most  amphibials  and  worms ;  but  where  the  organ  is  lo- 
cated, if  there  is  any  distinct  organ,  is  not  known. 

Where  the  organ  of  sense  resides  in  insects,  is  not 
certainly  determined.  That  they  have  the  power  of  dis- 
tinguishing the  odorous  properties  of  substances  in  an 
eminent  degree,  is  a  well  established  fact ;  but  whether 
it  is  developed  in  the  stigmata  or  feelers,  or  some  other 
organ,  has  not  yet  been  ascertained. 

The  olfactory  nerves  are  immediately  exposed,  but 
they  are  in  a  measure  protected  from  the  action  of  the  air, 
which  is  constantly  passing  over  them  during  the  process 
of  respiration,  and  from  acrid  substances,  by  the  rnucus 
which  covers  them,  and  which  is  secreted  by  glands  em- 
bedded in  the  membrane. 

Almost  all  bodies  in  nature,  whether  animate  or  inani- 
mate, send  forth  some  odor.  This  odor  circulates  in  the 
atmosphere,  and  comes  in  contact  with  the  olfactory 
nerves  of  different  animals,  and  produces  in  them  differ- 
ent sensations.  To  one  animal  the  odor  of  a  plant  may 
be  highly  agreeable,  but  to  another  extremely  unpleasant. 

It  is  fortunate  for  animals  and  for  mankind,  that  the 
same  materials  produce  different  Impressions  —  that  there 
is  a  variety  of  tastes  —  that  no  two  individuals  are  exact- 
ly alike  either  in  form,  feeling,  character,  or  expression  ; 
for  this  variety  is  the  source  of  everything  that  is  beau- 
tiful or  interesting  in  the  physical  as  well  as  the  moral 
world. 

The  organs  of  tasting  and  smelling  in  all  animals  are 
BO  situated  as  to  render  mutual  assistance  to  each  othen. 


422  PROPERTIES  AND  FUNCTIONS 

They  are  always  contiguous.  The  sense  of  smelling  may 
become  perverted  as  well  as  that  of  tasting.  Odors  that 
were  originally  unpleasant  to  us,  may  by  habitual  use 
become  not  only  agreeable  but  apparently  necessary.  The 
nervous  papillae  may  be  so  changed  that  the  same  mate- 
rial presented  at  different  times  may  produce  entirely 
different  impressions,  or  they  may  lose  their  natural  irri- 
tability so  much  as  not  to  be  easily  excited. 

The  senses  of  hearing  and  seeing  are  more  refined 
than  those  of  feeling,  tasting,  or  smelling  ;  and  the  organs 
in  which  the  former  reside,  or.through  which  the  impres- 
sions are  conveyed,  are  far  more  complicated  in  their 
structure  than  those  of  the  latter. 

The  organ  of  hearing  in  men,  and  the  most  perfect 
animals,  is  the  ear.  In  these  there  are  two  distinct  open- 
ings into  the  ear,  a  larger  or  external,  (which  is  surround- 
ed by  a  lobe  so  constructed  as  in  the  best  manner  possi- 
ble to  collect  the  undulation  of  the  air  produced  by 
sonorous  bodies,  and  convey  the  same  to  the  nerves  situ- 
ated in  the  internal  ear,  which  convey  the  impression  of 
sound  to  the  brain,)  and  an  internal  opening  which  passes 
from  the  mouth  into  the  ear,  and  which  is  called  the 
Eustachion  tube.  When  a  person  is  desirous  of  hearing, 
and  the  sound  is  imperfect,  the  mouth  is  involuntarily 
opened,  and  the  sound  is  thus  conveyed  through  this 
tube.  Frogs,  and  most  amphibious  animals  have  no  ex- 
ternal ear,  but  they  hear  by  means  of  the  internal  pass- 
age or  that  from  the  mouth.  Among  serpents  the  com- 
mon harmless  snake  or  blind  worm  is  the  only  one  that 
has  an  aperture  which  leads  to  the  internal  ear,  that  can 
be  discovered.  All  others  have  the  internal  organs  de- 
veloped in  an  imperfect  manner  ;  and  it  is  therefore  pro- 
bable, at  least,  that  there  is  some  effective  entrance  to 
them.  The  whole  cetaceous  tribe  hear  through  their  nos- 
trils or  blow-holes.  ;;£  *** 

Among  fishes,  the  shark  and  a  few  others  have  the  ru- 
diments of  an  external  ear ;  but  most  of  the  tribe  hear 
through  the  external  opening  alone.  Insects  have  the 
sense  of  hearing  ;  but  it  is  questionable  by  what  organ  it 
is  performed.  —  Some  have  supposed  that  the  antennae 
performed  this  office  in  combination  with  several  other 


OF    ORGANIZED    BEINGS.  423 

of  the  senses ;  but  the  question  would  then  arise,  how 
do  those  animals  hear  that  have  no  antennae  1  Spiders 
hear,  or  at  least  we  have  conclusive  evidence  of  this 
fact,  and  yet  they  have  no  antennae. 

'  Hearing  enables  us  to  perceive  all  the  agreeable  sen- 
sations conveyed  to  our  minds  by  the  melody  and  harmo- 
ny of  sounds.  This  to  men  at  least  is  a  great  source  of 
pleasure  as  well  as  of  innocent  amusement.  Some  men 
are,  however,  almost  destitute  of  the  faculty  of  distin- 
guishing musical  sounds,  and  of  perceiving  those  delightful 
and  diversified  feelings  excited  "by  the  various  combina- 
tions of  musical  tones.  An  ear  for  music,  however,  though 
not  to  be  organized  by  study  when  the  faculty  is  wanting, 
may  be  highly  improved  by  habit  and  culture.  Buffon, 
after  examining  a  number  of  persons  who  had  no  ear  for 
music,  says  that  every  one  of  them  heard  worse  in  one 
ear  than  in  the  other,  and  ascribes  their  inability  of  dis- 
tinguishing expressions  to  that  defect.  But  a  musical  ear 
seems  to  have  no  dependence  on  acuteness  or  bluntness 
of  hearing  whether  in  one  or  in  both.  There  are  exam- 
ples of  people  who  may  be  said  to  be  half  deaf,  and  yet 
are  both  fond  of  music,  and  skilful  practitioners.'  For  a 
full  and  scientific  description  of  the  organs  of  vision,  see 
No.  V.  on  the  mechanism  of  the  eye,  by  Dr  Smith. 

We  have  thus  taken  a  general  survey  of  the  properties 
and  functions  which  belong  to  all  organized  beings. 

It  may  serve  to  enlighten  those  who  have  but  little  time 
and  less  means  to  attend  to  scientific  pursuits,  or  stimulate 
those  who  have  to  a  closer  examination  of  the  subject.  If 
either  of  these  purposes  are  effected,  the  writer  will  feel 
himself  happy,  and  will  rejoice  at  the  opportunity  which 
has  thus  been  given  for  the  effort  of  his  feeble  talents. 


AGENTS 

FOR  THE 

SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

MAINE. 

Norwich,             Thomas  Robinson. 

Portland,          Samuel  Colman. 
Hallowell,         C.   Spaulding. 

Middletown,       Kdwin  Hunt. 
NEW  YORK. 

Augusta,          P.  J).  Briismade. 

New  York,          Charles  S.  Francis. 

Bangor,             B.  Wourse. 
Belfast.             JV.  P.  Haves. 

Albany,               Little  If    Cumminga. 
Canandaigua,     Bemis  Sf    W.vd. 

Troy,                    W.  S.  Parker. 

i^astport,        s  ^  Folsom. 

Utica,                  G.  S.  Wilson. 

Norway,           rfsa  'Barton. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Rochester,          E.  Peck  4-    Co. 
NEW  JERSEY. 

~       ,               I  F.li  French, 

Trenton,              D.  Fenian. 

Dover>             1  S.  C.  Stevens. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Hanover,           Thomas  .Ma  mi. 
Concord,            Horatio  Hill  4-   Co. 

Philadelphia,  j  Thomal'^^h^' 

Keene,               George  Tilden. 

MARYLAND. 

Portsmouth.      John  W.  Foster. 

Baltimore.          Charles  Carter. 

VERMONT. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Burlington,       C.  Goodrich. 
Brattlel)oro',     Geo.  H.  Peck. 

Washington,      Thompson  $  Homans. 
Georgetown,       James  Thomas. 

Windsor,           Simeon  Ide. 

VIRGINIA. 

Montpelier,       J.  S.    Walton. 
Bellows  Falls,  James  I.  Cutler  4-  Co. 

Frcdericksburg,  Mm.  F.  Gray,  P.  M. 
OHIO. 

Rutland,             Win.  Fay 
Middlebury,      Jonathan  Hagar. 

Cincinnati,     \%&&££D?£ 

Castleton,          B.  Burtun  2c/> 

Columbus,          ./.  A*.  Whtiina. 

St  Albans,         L.  L.  Duecher. 

MISSISSIPPI. 

Chester,              Charles  Whiffle. 

Natches,             F.  Beaumont. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Salem,               Wkipple  If  Lawrence. 
Newburyport,  Charles    I?  hippie. 
Northampton,  S.  Butler  4'  SOB. 
Andover,           M.  Weinman. 

Charleston,        Ebene-.er  Thayer. 
NORTH  CAROLINA. 
Raleigh,             Turner  4-    Hughes. 
GEORGIA. 

Amherst,           J.  S.  4-   C.  Jidams. 

Savannah,          Tho,»»s  M.  Driscoll. 

Worcester,        Dorr  4-  Ho  id  a  ad. 

ALAHAMA 

Springfield,         Thomas  Dickman. 
New  Bedford,  Jl.Shearman,Jr.if  Co. 

Mobile,              Odiorne  If  Smith. 
LOUISIANA. 

Methuen,           J.  JV.   Carlton  t(  Co. 
Brooklield,        F..  4"  G.  Merriam. 

New  Orleans,    Mnrii  Carroll. 
MICHIGAN  TERRITORY. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 

Detroit,              Georrre  L.    Whitney. 

Providence,    \%Wt*SSL 

CANADA. 

Montreal,          //.  //.   Cunningham. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Quebec,             Wcilsnn  4-  Cowan. 

Hartford,           H.  4"  F.  J.  Huntington 

ENGLAND. 

New  Haven,     .1.  H.  Maltby 

London,            John  JUarden. 

PUBLISHED   BY    CARTER,    HENDEE    AND   BABCOCK, 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 

T  « 

%*  TERMS  —  24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  FIFTT 

CENTS. 
S.__  < 

SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS. 

9 

NUMBER    XVIII. 


WHALE     FISHERY. 

INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

THERE  are  many  circumstances  which  unite  to  give 
interest  to  everything  relating  to  the  huge  animal,  the 
method  of  whose  capture  is  to  be  the  subject  of  the  fol- 
lowing Tract.  We  shall  first  briefly  allude  to  some  of 
these  circumstances,  and  then  proceed  to  describe  in  de- 
tail the  animating  scenes  which  are  presented  in  these 
.terrific  conflicts  between  human  ingenuity  on  the  one 
hand  and  brute,  but  monstrous  power,  on  the  other. 

1.  The  Structure  of  the  Whale.     Most  of  the  inhabi- 
tants of  the  sea  breathe  no  air  —  their  blood  is  cold  —  and 
their  young  is  produced  by  spawn,  which  is  alwavs  aban- 
doned by  the  parent  to  the  winds  and  waves.  The  family 
of  cetaceous  animals,  however,  have  warm  blood  —  they 
breathe  the  air —  they  produce  living  offspring,  which  they 
cherish  and  protect  while  young.     These  things  occasion 
a  great  difference  of  structure.     They  breathe.     Conse- 
quently, they  are  generally  near  the  surface  of  the  wrater, 
and  often  come  to  it  to  take  breath,  giving  a  sort  of  puflT, 
from  which  the  sailors  have  given  them  all  the  name  of 
blowers.     They  are  warm  blooded.     They  therefore  have 
a  thick  coating  of  fat  for  clothing.     It  is  for  this  clothing 
that  they  are  chiefly  valuable  to  man. 

2.  Tlie  Commercial  Importance,  of  the  Whale  I''i>/tf>ry. 
A  very    large   amount  of  capital,  both   in  the  shape  of 
money  and  of  men,  is  employed  in  this  trade,  from  this 
country.     This  amount,  too,   is  increasing.     And  from 
present  appearances  it  is  probable  that  it  will  increase 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xvin.  38 


426  WHALE    FISHERY. 


still  farther,  both  in  this  country  and  Europe.  The  parts 
of  the  animal  are  converted  to  a  great  variety  of  purposes. 
The  flesh,  though  rejected  by  Europeans,  is  the  principal 
food  of  many  savage  tribes  on  the  coast  of  the  northern 
seas.  They  construct,  lalso,  windows  of  some  thin  semi- 
transparent  membranes  found  in  the  animal ;  —  they  make 
weapons  of  war  from  the  bones,  and  cords  from  the  sin- 
ews^. The  chief  articles  of  value,  however,  are  the  oil, 
and  the  whalebone,  as  it  is  called.  This  latter  substance 
is  not  properly  bone.  It  is  found  in  laminae  in  the  mouth 
of  the  animal,  in  the  place  of  teeth. 

3.  The  very  interesting  Nature  of  the  Fishery.  The 
excitement,  the  danger,  the  magnitude  of  the  object  of 
the  chase,  conspire  to  throw  an  intensity  of  interest  about 
this  subject,  which  can  be  found  in  very  few  of  the  modes 
in  which  human  ingenuity  and  enterprise  are  exerted. 
For  the  above  reasons  we  shall  present,  chiefly  from 
the  writings  of  Capt.  Scoresby,  the  universal  authority  on 
this  subject,  a  full  description  of  the  whale  fishery.  Capt. 
Scoresby  was  a  whalemen  himself — and  he  united  to  the 
most  favorable  opportunities  of  observation,  a  mind  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  seize  on  the  striking  and  prominent 
features  of  a  scene,  and  to  describe  them  with  vividness 
and  force. 

INSTRUMENTS    USED    IN    THE    WHALE    FISHERY. 

Whale  Ships.  The  ships  are  fitted  out  for  this  pur 
pose  with  apparatus  for  taking  the  whale,  cutting  up  the 
animal,  and  extracting  the  oil,  and  also  with  a  large 
supply  of  casks  to  contain  it.  They  sail  so  as  to  be  upon 
the  fishing  stations  in  the  northern  latitudes,  in  the  spring 
of  the  year. 

Whale  Boats.  A  whale  boat  is  constructed  in  such 
a  manner  that  it  differs  in  many  important  respects  from 
other  boats.  It  if  lighter, —  more  easily  turned,  —  it  moves 
more  swiftly.  They  are  twenty  or  twenty  five  feet  long, 
and  between  five  and  six  feet  wide. 

Weapons.  The  chief  weapon  is  the  harpoon,  of  which 
the  adjoining  cut 

is  a  rcpresenta-     ^  ^- -7 

tion.     The  part 
marked  m  is  call-        ^ 


WHALE    FISHERY.  427 

ed  the  mouth.  It  consists  simply  of  a  doul/ly  barbed 
point.  The  slender  part,  marked  s,  connecting  this  with 
the  handle,  is  of  very  ductile  iron,  so  as  to  bend  and 
twist  in  any  direction  by  the  efforts  of  the  whale,  without 
breaking.  A  very  flexible  but  strong  rope  is  attached 
to  the  harpoon.  It  is  of  great  length  and  one  end  is  re- 
tained in  the  boat.  In  addition  to  the  harpoon,  there-is 
a  lance,  which  is  a  spear  of  iron,  with  a  very  sharp  steel 
point.  It  is  used  for  finally  despatching  the  whale,  after 
he  is  almost  exhausted  in  the  contest. 

PROCEEDINGS    ON    FISHING    STATIONS. 

Discovery  of  the  Whale.  On  fishing  stations,  when 
the  weather  is  such  as  to  render  the  fishing  practicable, 
he  boats  are  always  ready  for  inst;;nt  service.  Suspend- 
ed from  davits  or  cranes  by  the  side  of  the  ship,  furnish- 
ed with  the  requisite  implements,  two  boats  at  least,  the 
crews  of  which  are  always  in  readiness,  can  in  a  general 
way,  be  manned  and  lowered  into  the  water,  within  the 
space  of  one  minute  of  time. 

Wherever  there  is  a  probability  of  seeing  whales,  when 
the  weather  and  situation  are  such  as  to  piesent  a  possi- 
bility of  capturing  them,  the  croivsncst,as  it  is  called,  i.  e. 
a  station  at  the  mast  head,  is  generally  occupied  by  the 
master  or  some  of  the  officers,  who,  commanding  from 
thence  an  extensive  prospect  of  the  surrounding  sea, 
keeps  with  the  assistance  of  a  telescope,  an  anxious  watch 
for  the  appearance  of  a  whale.  The  moment  that  a  fish* 
is  seen,  he  gives  notice  to  the  '  watch  upon  deck,'  part 
of  whom  leap  into  a  boat,  are  lowered  down,  and  push 
off  towards  the  place.  If  the  fish  be  large,  a  second 
boat  is  immediately  despatched  to  the  support  of  the  other. 
When  the  whale  again  appears —  for  if  he  has  gone  down 
he  must  soon  come  up  again  to  breathe,  —  two  boats  row 
towards  it  with  the  utmost  speed  ;  and  though  they  may 
be  disappointed  in  their  attempts,  they  generally  continue 
their  pursuit  until  the  fish  either  takes  the  alarm,  and  es- 
capes them,  or  they  are  recalled  by  signal  to  the  ship. 
When  two  or  more  fish  appear  at  the  same  time  in  differ- 
ent situations,  the  number  of  boats  sent  in  pursuit  is  in- 


128  WHALE    FISHEKV. 


creased,  and  sometimes  all  the  boats  are  sent  out.  Dur- 
ing fine  weather,  in  situations  where  whales  are  seen,  or 
where  they  have  recently  been  seen,  or  where  there  is  a 
great  probability  of  any  making  their  appearance,  a  boat 
is  generally  kept  in  readiness,  manned  and  afloat.  If  the 
ship  sails  with  considerable  velocity,  this  boat  is  towed 
by  a  rope  astern  ;  but  when  the  ship  is  pretty  still, 
whether  moored  to  ice,  laid  to,  or  sailing  in  light  winds, 
the  '  bran  boat,'  as  it  is  called,  often  pushes  off  to  a 
little  distance  from  the  ship.  A  boat  on  watch  commonly 
lies  still  in  some  eligible  situation  with  all  its  oars  elevat- 
ed out  of  the  water,  but  in  readiness,  in  the  hands  of  the 
rowers,  for  immediate  use. 

The  harpooner  and  boat  steerer  keep  a  careful  watch 
on  all  sides,  while  each  of  the  rowers  looks  out  in  the 
direction  of  his  oar.  Thus  the  whole  horizon  is  under 
close  observation.  In  fishing  near  fields  of  ice,  the  boats 
approach  the  ice  with  their  sterns,  and  are  each  of  them 
fastened  to  it  by  means  of  a  boat  hook,  or  an  iron  spike 
with  a  cord  attached,  either  of  which  is  held  by  the  boat 
steerer,  and  is  slipped  or  withdrawn  the  moment  a  whale 
appears.  There  are  several  rules  observed  in  approach- 
ing a  whale,  as  precautions,  to  prevent,  as  far  as  possible, 
the  animal  from  taking  the  alarm. 

As  the  whale  is  dull  of  hearing,  but  quick  of  sight, 
the  boat  steerer  always  endeavors  to  get  behind  it ;  and, 
in  accomplishing  this,  he  is  sometimes  justified  in  taking 
a  circuitous  route.  In  calm  weather  the  greatest  caution 
is  necessary,  before  a  whale  can  be  reached  ;  smooth, 
careful  rowing,  is  always  requisite,  and  sometimes  scull- 
ing is  practised. 

A  whale  *seldom  abides  longer  on  the  water  than  two 
minutes,  and  it  generally  remains  from  five,  to  ten  or  fif- 
teen minutes  under  water.  During  this  interval,  it 
sometimes  moves  through  a  space  of  half  a  mile  or  more, 
and  the  fisher  has  very  rarely  any  certain  intimation  of 
the  place  in  which  it  will  reappear.  Consequently,  the 
difficulty  and  address  requisite  to  approach  sufficiently 
near,  during  its  short  stay  on  the  surface,  to  harpoon  it, 
is  very  great. 

It  is,  therefore,  a  primary   consideration  with  the  har- 


WHALE    FISHERY.  429 

pooner,  always  to  place  his  boat  as  near  as  possible  to  the 
spot,  in  which  he  expects  the  fish  to  rise,  and  he  conceives 
himself  successful  in  the  attempt  when  the  fish  '  comes 
up  within  a  start,1  that  is,  within  the  distance  of  about 
two  hundred  yards. 

In  all  cases  when  a  whale  that  is  pursued,  has  but 
once  been  seen,  the  fisher  is  considerably  indebted  to 
what  is  called  chance  for  a  favorable  position.  But  when 
the  whale  has  been  twice  seen,  and  its  change  of  place, 
if  any,  noticed,  the  harpooner  makes  the  best  use  of  the 
intimation  derived  from  his  observation  on  its  apparent 
motion,  and  places  his  boat  accordingly.  Thus  he  an- 
ticipates the  fish  in  its  progress,  so  that  when  it  rises  to 
the  surface*  there  is  probability  of  its  being  within  the 
favorable  precincts  of  a  start.  A  whale  moving  forward 
at  a  small  distance  beneath  the  surface  of  the  sea,  leaves 
a  sure  indication  of  its  situation,  in  what  is  c;dled  an 
'  eddy,'  having  somewhat  the  resemblance  of  the  '  wake' 
or  track  of  a  ship  ;  and  in  fine  calm  weather,  its  change 
of  position  is  sometimes  pointed  out  by  the  birds,  many 
of  which  closely  follow  it  when  at  the  surface,  and  hover 
over  it  when  below,  whose  keener  vision  can  discover  it, 
when  it  is  totally  concealed  from  human  eyes.  By  these 
indications  many  whales  have  been  taken. 

THE    ATTACK    AND    PURSUIT. 

Whenever  a  whale  lies  on  the  surface  of  the  water,  un- 
conscious of  the  approach  of  its  enemies,  the  hardy  fisher 
rows  directly  upon  it,  and  an  instant  before  the  boat  touch- 
es it,  buries  his  harpoon  in  its  back.  But  if,  while  the  boat 
is  yet  at  a  little  distance,  the  whale  should  indicate  his  in- 
tention of  diving,  by  lifting  his  head  above  the  common 
level,  and  then  plunging  it  under  water, and  raising  its  bo:ly 
until  it  appear  like  the  large  segment  of  a  sphere,  —  the 
harpoon  is  thrown  from  the  hand,  or  fired  from  a  gun,  the 
former  of  which,  when  skilfully  practised,  is  efficient  nt  the 
distance  of  eight  or  ten  yards,  and  the  latter  at  the  distance 
of  thirty  yards  or  upwards.  The  wounded  whale,  in  the 
surprise  and  agony  of  the  moment,  makes  a  convulsive 
effort  to  escape.  Then  is  the  moment  of  danger.  The 
boat  is  subjected  to  the  most  violent  blows  from  its  head 

VOL.  i.  — NO.  xviii.         38* 


430  WHALE    FISHERY. 


or  its  fins,  but  particularly  from  its  ponderous  tail,  which 
sometimes  sweeps  the  air  with  such  tremendous  fury, 
that  both  boat  and  men  are  exposed  to  one  common-  de- 
sliuction. 

The  head  of  the  whale  is  avoided,  because  it  cannot 
be  penetrated  with  the  harpoon  ;  bat  any  part  of  the 
body,  between  the  head  and  tail,  will  admit  of  the  full 
length  of  the  instrument,  without  danger  of  obstruction. 
The  harpoon,  therefore,  is  always  struck  into  the  back, 
and  generally  well  forward  towards  the  fins,  thus  afford- 
ing the  chance,  when  it  happens  to  drag  and  plough  along 
the  back,  of  retaining  its  hold  during  a  longer  time,  than 
when  struck  in  closer  to  the  tail. 

The  moment  that  the  wounded  whale  disappears,  or 
leaves  the  boat,  a  jack  o'r  flag,jelevated  on  a  staff,  is  dis- 
played, on  sight  of  which,  those  on  watch  in  the  ship, 
give  the  alarm,  by  stamping  on  the  deck,  accompanied 
by  a  simultaneous  and  continued  shout  of  '  a  fall.'*  A;. 
the  sound  of  this,  the  sleeping  crew  are  roused,  jump 
from  their  beds,  rush  upon  deck,  with  their  clothes  tied 
by  a  string  in  their  hands,  and  crowd  into  the  boats,  with 
a  temperature  of  zero.  Should  a  fall  occur,  the  crew 
would  appear  upon  deck,  shielded  only  by  their  drawers, 
stockings,  and  shirts,  or  other  habiliments  in  which  they 
sleep.  They  generally  contrive  to  dress  themselves,  in 
part,  at  least,  as  the  boats  are  lowered  down ;  but  some- 
times they  push  off  in  the  state  in  which  they  rise  from 
their  beds,  row  away  towards  the  Mast  boat,'  that  is,  the 
boat  attached  by  its  harpoon  and  line,  to  the  whale,  and 
have  no  opportunity  to  clothe  themselves  for  a  length  of 
time  afterwards.  The  alarm  of  '  a  fall '  has  a  singular 
effect  on  the  feelings  of  a  sleeping  person,  unaccustomed 
to  the  whale  fishing  business.  It  has  often  been  mistak- 
en for  a  cry  of  distress.  A  landsman  in  a  Hull  ship,  see- 
ing the  crew,  on  the  occasion  of  a  fall,  rush  upon  deck, 
with  their  clothes  in  their  hands,  when  there  was  no  ap- 
pearance of  danger,  thought  the  men  were  all  mad  ;  but 

*  The  word  '  fall,'  as  well  as  many  others  used  in  the  fishery,  if 
dc-rived  from  the  Dutcli  language.  In  the  original  it  is  written  val, 
implying  jump,  drop,  fall,  and  is  considered  expressive  of  the  con- 
duct of  the  sailor.-',  when  manning  the  boats,  on  an  occasion  requiring 
extreme  despatch. 


WHALE    FISHERY.  431 


with  another  individual,  the  effect  was  totally  different. 
Alarmed  with  the  extraordinary  noise,  and  still  more  so, 
when  he  reached  the  deck,  with  the  appearance  of  all  the 
crew  seated  in  the  boats  in  their  shirts,  he  imagined  the 
ship  was  sinking.  He  therefore  endeavored  to  get  into  a 
boat  himself,  but  every  one  of  them  being  fully  manned, 
he  was  always  repulsed.  After  several  fruitless  endeav- 
ors to  gain  a  place  among  his  comrades,  he  cried  out, 
with  feelings  of  evident  distress,  'What  shall  I  do? — 
will  none  of  you  take  rne  in  ?  ' 

The  first  effort  of  a  '  fast  fish,'  or  whale  that  has  been 
struck,  is  to  escape  from  the  boat,  by  sinking  under  wa- 
ter. After  this,  it  pursues  its  course  directly  downward, 
or  reappears  at  a  little  distance,  and  swims  with  great 
celerity,  near  the  surface  of  the  water,  towards  any 
neighboring  ice,  among  which  it  may  attain  an  imagina- 
ry shelter ;  or  it  returns  instantly  to  the  surface,  and 
gives  evidence  of  its  agony,  by  the  most  convulsive 
throes,  in  which  its  fins  and  tail  are  alternately  displayed 
in  the  air,  and  dashed  into  the  water  with  tremendous 
violence.  The  former  behaviour,  however,  that  is,  to  dive 
towards  the  bottom  of  the  sea,  is  so  frequent,  in  com- 
parison of  any  other,  that  it  may  be  considered  as  the 
general  conduct  of  a  fast  fish. 

A  whale  struck  near  the  edge  of  any  large  sheet  of 
ice,  and  passing  underneath  it,  will  sometimes  run  the 
whole  of  the  lines  out  of  the  boat,  in  the  space  of  eight 
or  ten  minutes  of  time.  This  being  the  ca=e,  when  the 
'  fast  boat'  is  at  a  distance,  both  from  the  ship  and  from 
any  other  boat,  it  frequently  happens  that  the  lines  are 
all  withdrawn  before  assistance  arrives,  and,  with  the  fish, 
entirely  lost.  In  some  cases,  however,  they  are  recov- 
ered. To  retard,  therefore,  as  much  as  possible,  the 
flight  of  the  whale,  it  is  usual  for  the  harpooner,  who 
strikes  it,  to  cast  one,  two,  or  more  turns  of  line  round  a 
kind  of  post,  called  a  ballard,  which  is  fixed  within  ten 
or  twelve  inches  of  the  stern  of  the  boat,  for  the  purpose. 
Such  is  the  friction  of  the  line,  when  running  round  the 
ballard,  that  it  frequently  envelopes  the  harpooner  in 
smoke ;  and  if  the  wood  were  not  repeatedly  wetted, 
would  probably  set  fire  to  the  boat.  During  the  capture 


WHALE    FISHERY. 


of  one  whale,  a  groove  is  sometimes  cut  in  the  ballard, 
near  an  inch  in  depth ;  and,  were  it  not  for  a  plate  of 
brass,  iron,  or  a  block  of  lignum  vitse,  which  covers  the 
top  of  the  stem  where  the  line  passes  over,  it  is  appre- 
hended that  the  action  of  the  line  on  the  material  of  the 
boat,  would  cut  it  down  to  the  water's  edge,  in  the  course 
of  one  season  of  successful  fishing.  The  approaching 
distress  of  a  boat,  for  want  of  line,  is  indicated  by  the 
elevation  of  an  oar,  in  the  way  of  a  mast,  to  which  is 
added  a  second,  a  third,  or  even  a  fourth,  in  proportion 
to  the  nature  of  the  exigence.  The  utmost  care  and  at- 
tention are  requisite,  on  the  part  of  every  person  in  the 
boat,  when  the  lines  are  running  out ;  fatal  consequences 
having  been  sometimes  produced  by  the  most  trifling 
neglect.  When  the  line  happens  '  to  run  foul,'  and  can- 
not be  cleared  on  the  instant,  it  sometimes  draws  the  boat 
under  water ;  on  which,  if  no  auxiliary  boat,  or  conveni- 
ent piece  of  ice  be  at  hand,  the  crew  are  plunged  into 
the  sea,  and  are  obliged  to  trust  to  the  buoyancy  of  their 
oars,  or  to  their  skill  in  swimming,  for  supporting  them- 
selves on  the  surface.  To  provide  against  such  an  acci- 
dent, as  well  as  to  be  ready  to  furnish  an  additional  sup- 
ply of  lines,  it  is  usual,  when  boats  are  sent  in  pursuit, 
for  two  to  go  out  in  company,  and  when  a  whale  has  been 
struck,  for  the  first  assisting  boat  which  approaches,  to 
join  the  fast  boat,  and  to  stay  by  it  until  the  fish  reap- 
pears. The  other  boats,  likewise,  make  towards  the  one 
carrying  a  flag,  and  surround  it  at  various  distances, 
awaiting  the  appearance  of  the  wounded  whale. 

On  my  first  voyage*  to  the  whale-fishery,  such  an  ac- 
cident, as  above  alluded  to,  occurred.  A  thousand  fa- 
thoms of  line  were  already  out,  and  the  fast  boat  was  for- 
cibly pressed  against  the  side  of  a  piece  of  ice.  The 
harpooner,  in  his  anxiety  to  retard  the  flight  of  the  whale, 
applied  too  many  turns  of  the  line  round  the  ballard, 
which  getting  entangled,  drew  the  boat  beneath  the  ice. 
Another  boat,  providentially,  was  at  hand,  into  which  the 
crew,  including  myself,  who  happened  to  be  present,  had 
just  time  to  escape. 

*  Capt.  Scoresby. 


WHALE    FISHERY.  433 


The  whale,  with  near  two  miles'  length  ofline,  was,  in 
consequence  of  the  accident,  lost,  but  the  boat  was  re- 
covered. On  a  subsequent  occasion,  I  underwent  a  simi- 
lar misadventure,  but  with  a  happier  result ;  we  escaped 
with  a  little  wetting  into  an  accompanying  boat,  and  the 
whale  was  afterwards  captured,  and  the  boat  with  its 
lines  recovered. 

When  fish  have  been  struck  by  myself,  I  have  on  dif- 
ferent occasions  estimated  their  rate  of  descent.  For 
the  first  :j()0  fathoms,  the  average  velocity  was  usually 
after  the  rate  of  eight  to  ten  miles  per  hour.  In  one  in- 
stance, the  third  line  of  120  fathoms  was  run  out  in  six- 
tvone  seconds  ;  that  is  at  the  rate  of  eight  and  one  sixth 
English  miles,  or  seven  arid  one  eighth  nautical  miles  per 
hour.  By  the  motions  of  the  fast  boat,  the  simultaneous 
movements  of  the  whale  are  estimated.  The  auxiliary 
boats,  accordingly,  take  their  stations  about  the  situation 
where  the  whale,  from  these  motions,  may  reasonably  be 
expected  to  appear. 

The  average  stay  under  water,  of  a  wounded  whale, 
which  steadily  descends  after  being  struck,  according  to 
the  most  usual  conduct  of  the  animal,  is  about  thirty 
minutes.  The  longest  I  ever  observed  was  tiftysix  min- 
utes, but  in  shallow  water,  I  have  been  informed,  it  has 
sometimes  been  known  to  remain  an  hour  and  a  half  at 
the  bottom  after  being  struck,  and  yet  has  returned  to  the 
surface  alive.  The  greater  the  velocity,  the  more  con- 
siderable the  distance  to  which  it  descends,  and  the 
longer  the  time  it  remains  under  water,  so  much  greater 
in  proportion  is  the  extent  of  its  exhaustion  and  the  con- 
sequent facility  of  accomplishing  its  capture.  Immedi- 
ately on  its  reappearing,  the  assisting  boats  make  for  the 
place  with  their  utmost  speed,  and  as  they  reach  it,  each 
liarpooner  plunges  his  harpoon  into  its  back,  to  the 
amount  of  three,  four,  or  more,  according  to  the  size  of 
the  v/hal-e,  and  the  nature  of  the  situation.  Most  fre- 
quently, however,  it  descends  for  a  few  minutes  after  re- 
ceiving the  second  harpoon,  and  obliges  the  other  boats 
to  await  its  return  to  the  surface,  before  any  further  at- 
tack can  be  made.  It  is  afterwards  actively  plied  with 
lances,  which  are  thrust  into  its  body,  aiming  at  its  vitals. 


434  WHALE    FISHERY. 


At  length,  when  exhausted  by  numerous  wounds  and  the 
loss  of  blood,  which  flows  from  the  huge  animal  in  copi- 
ous streams,  it  indicates  the  approach  of  its  dissolution, 
by  discharging  from  its  'blowholes,'  a  mixture  of  blood 
along  with  the  air  and  mucus  which  it  usually  expires, 
and  finally  jets  of  blood  alone.  The  sea,  to  a  great  ex- 
tent around,  is  dyed  with  its  blood,  and  the  ice,  boats, 
and  men,  are  sometimes  drenched  with  the  same.  Its 
track  is  likewise  marked  by  a  broad  pellicle  of  oil,  which 
exudes  from  its  wounds,  and  appears  on  the  surface  of 
the  sea. 

Its  final  capture  is  sometimes  preceded  by  a  convulsive 
struggle,  in  which,  its  tail,  reared,  whirled,  and  violently 
jerked  in  the  air,  resounds  to  the  distance  of  miles.  In 
dying,  it  turns  on  its  back  or  on  its  side,  which  joyful 
circumstance  is  announced  by  the  capturers  with  the 
striking  of  their  flags,  accompanied  by  three  lively 
huzzas ! 

The  remarkable  exhaustion  observed  in  the  first  ap- 
pearance of  a  wounded  whale  at  the  surface,  after  a  de- 
scent of  TOO  or  800  fathoms  perpendicular,  does  not  de- 
pend on  the  nature  of  the  wound  it  has  received,  for  a 
hundred  superficial  wounds  received  from  harpoons, 
could  not  have  the  effects  of  a  single  lance  penetrating 
the  vitals,  but  is  the  effect  of  the  almost  incredible  pres- 
sure to  which  the  animal  must  have  been  exposed.  The 
surface  of  the  body  of  a  large  whale,  may  be  considered 
as  comprising  an  area  of  1540  square  feet.  This,  under 
the  common  'weight  of  the  atmosphere  only,  must  sus- 
tain a  pressure  of  3,104,040  pounds,  or  1380  tons.  But 
at  the  depth  of  800  fathoms,  where  there  is  a  column  of 
water  equal  in  weight  to  about  154  atmospheres,  the  pres- 
sure on  the  animal  must  be  equal  to  211, 200  tons.  This 
is  a  degree  of  pressure  of  which  we  can  have  but  an  im- 
perfect conception.  It  may  assist  our  comprehension, 
however,  to  be  informed,  that  it  exceeds  in  weight  sixty 
of  the  largest  ships  of  the  British  navy  when  manned, 
provisioned,  and  fitted  for  a  six  months'  cruise. 

Every  boat  fast  to  a  living  whale  carries  a  flag,  and 
the  ship  to  which  such  boats  belong,  also  wears  a  flag, 
until  the  whale  is  either  killed  or  makes  its  escape. 


WHALE    FISHERY.  435 


These  signals  serve  to  indicate  to  surrounding  ships  the 
exclusive  title  of  the  '  fast  ship,'  to  the  entangled  whale, 
and  to  prevent  their  interference,  excepting  in  the  way 
of  assistance,  in  the  capture.  A  very  natural  inquiry 
connected  with  this  subject,  is,  what  is  the  length  of 
time  requisite  for  capturing  a  whale?  This  is  a  ques- 
tion which  can  only  be  answered  indirectly  ;  for  I  have 
myself  witnessed  the  capture  of  a  large  whale,  which  has 
been  effected  in  twentyeight  minutes  ;  and  have  also 
been  engaged  with  another  fish  which  was  lost,  after  it 
had  been  entangled  about  sixteen  hours.  Instances  are 
well  authenticated,  in  which  whales  have  yielded  their 
lives  to  the  lances  of  active  fishers,  within  the  space  of 
fifteen  minutes  from  the  time  of  being  struck  ;  and  in 
cases  when  fish  have  been  shot  with  a  harpoon-gun,  in  a 
still  shorter  period  ;  while  other  instances  are  equally  fa- 
miliar and  certain,  wherein  a  whale  having  gained  the 
shelter  of  a  pack  or  compact  patch  of  ice,  has  sustained 
or  avoided  every  attack  upon  it,  during  the  space  of  for- 
ty or  fifty  hours.  Some  whales  have  been  captured  when 
very  slightly  entangled  with  a  single  harpoon,  while 
others  have  disengaged  themselves,  though  severely 
wounded  with  lances,  by  a  single  act  of  violent  and  con- 
vulsive distortion  of  the  body,  or  tremendous  shake  of 
the  tail,  from  four  or  more  harpoons;  in  which  act,  some 
of  the  lines  have  been  broken  with  apparent  ease,  and 
the  harpoons  to  which  other  lines  were  attached,  either 
broken  or  torn  out  of  the  body  of  the  vigorous  animal. 
Generally,  the  speedy  capture  of  a  whale  depends  on  the 
activity  of  the  harpooners,  the  favorableness  of  situation 
and  weather,  and,  in  no  inconsiderable  degree,  on  the 
peculiar  conduct  of  the  whale  attacked.  Under  the 
most  favorable  circumstances,  namely,  when  the  fisher- 
men are  very  active,  the  ice  very  open,  or  the  sea  free 
from  ice  and  the  weather  fine,  —  the  average  length  of 
time  occupied  in  the  capture  of  a  whale,  may  be  stated 
as  not  exceeding  an  hour.  The  general  average,  includ- 
ing all  sizes  of  fish,  and  all  circumstances  of  capture, 
may  probably  be  two  or  three  hours. 

The  method  practised  in  the  capture  of  whales,  under 
favorable  circumstances/is  very  uniform  with  all  the  fish- 


436  WHALE    FISHERY. 


ers  of  every  nation.  The  only  variation  observable  in 
the  proceedings  of  the  different  fishers,  consisting  in  the 
degree  of  activity  and  resolution  displayed,  in  pursuance 
of  the  operations  of  harpooning  and  lancing  the  whale, 
and  in  the  address  manifested  in  improving  by  any  acci- 
dental movement  of  the  fish,  which  may  lay  it  open  to 
an  effectual  attack, — rather  than  in  anything  different 
or  superior  in  the  general  method  of  conducting  the  fish- 
ery. It  is  true,  that  with  some  the  harpoon-gun  is  much 
valued,  and  used  with  advantage,  while  with  others,  it  is 
held  in  prejudiced  aversion  ;  yet,  as  this  difference  of 
opinion  affects  only  the  first  attack  and  entanglement  of 
the  whale,  the  subsequent  proceedings  with  all  the  fish- 
ers, may  still  be  said  to  be  founded  on  equal  and  unani- 
mous principles.  Hence,  the  mode  described  in  the  pre- 
ceding pages,  of  conducting  the  fishery  for  whales  under 
favorable  circumstances,  may  be  considered  as  the  gen- 
eral plan  pursued  by  the  whalemen  of  all  nations.  Nei- 
ther is  there  any  difference  in  the  plan  of  attack,  or  mode 
of  capture  between  fish  of  large  size,  and  those  of  lesser 
growth ;  the  proceedings  are  the  same,  but,  of  course, 
with  the  smaller  whales  less  force  is  requisite ;  though  it 
sometimes  happens  that  the  trouble  attached  to  the  kill- 
ing of  a  very  small  whale,  exceeds  that  connected  with 
the  capture  of  one  of  the  largest  individuals.  The  pro- 
gress or  flight  of  a  large  whale  cannot  be  restrained  ; 
but  that  of  an  under  size  fish  may  generally  be  confined 
within  the  limits  of  400  to  COO  fathoms  of  line.  A  full 
grown  fish  generally  occupies  the  whole,  or  nearly  the 
whole  of  the  boats  belonging  to  one  ship  in  its  capture ; 
but  three,  four,  or  sometfmes  more  small  fish,  have  been 
killed  at  the  same  time,  by  six  or  seven  boats.  It  is  not 
unusual  for  small  whales  to  run  downward  until  they  ex- 
haust themselves  so  completely,  that  they  are  not  able 
to  return  to  the  surface,  but  are  suffocated  in  the  water. 
As  it  is  requisite  that  a  whale  that  has  been  drowned 
should  be  drawn  up  by  the  line,  which  is  a  tedious  and 
troublesome  operation,  it  is  usual  to  guard  against  such 
fin  event  by  resisting  its  descent  with  a  light  strain  on 
the  line,  and  also  by  hauling  upon  the  line,  the  moment 
its  descent  is  stopped,  with  a  view  of  inducing  it  to  re- 


WHALE    FISHERY.  437 


turn  to  the  surface,  where  it  can  be  killed  and  secured 
without  further  trouble.  Seldom  more  than  two  harpoons 
are  struck  into  an  under  size  whale. 

The  ease  with  which  some  whales  are  subdued,  and 
the  slightness  of  the  entanglement  by  which  they  are  ta- 
ken, is  truly  surprising;  but  with  others  it  is  equally  as- 
tonishing, that  neither  line  nor  harpoon,  nor  any  number 
of  each,  is  sufficiently  strong  to  effect  their  capture. 
Many  instances  have  occurred  where  whales  have  escap- 
ed, from  four,  five,  or  even  more  harpoons,  while  fish, 
equally  large,  have  been  killed  through  the  medium  of  a 
single  harpoon.  Indeed,  whales  have  been  taken  in  con- 
sequence of  the  entanglement  of  a  line,  without  any  har- 
poon at  all ;  though,  when  such  a  case  has  occurred,  it 
has  evidently  been  the  result  of  accident.  The  follow- 
ing instances  are  in  point. 

A  whale  was  struck  from  one  of  the  boats  of  the  ship 
Nautilus  in  Davis's  Straits.  It  was  killed,  and  as  is  usual 
after  the  capture,  it  was  disentangled  of  the  line  con- 
nected with  the  first  'fast-boat,'  by  dividing  it  within 
eight  or  nine  yards  of  the  harpoon.  The  crew  of  the 
boat  from  which  the  fish  was  first  struck,  in  the  mean- 
time were  employed  in  heaving  in  the  lines,  by  means  of 
a  crank  fixed  in  the  boat  for  the  purpose,  which  they 
progressively  effected  for  some  time.  On  a  sudden,  how- 
ever, to  their  great  astonishment,  the  lines  were  pulled 
away  from  them,  with  the  same  force  and  violence,  as  by 
a  whale  when  first  struck. 

They  repeated  their  signal  indicative  of  a  whale  be- 
ing struck ;  their  shipmates  flocked  towards  them,  and 
while  every  one  expressed  a  similar  degree  of  astonish- 
ment with  themselves,  they  all  agreed  that  a  fish  was  fast 
to  the  line.  In  a  few  minutes,  they  were  agreeably  con- 
firmed in  their  opinion,  and  relieved  from  suspense,  by 
the  rising  of  a  large  whale  close  by  them,  exhausted 
with  fatigue,  and  having  every  appearance  of  a  fast-fish. 
It  permitted  itself  to  be  struck  by  several  harpoons  at 
once,  and  was  speedily  killed.  On  examining  it  after 
death,  to  discover  the  cause  of  such  an  interesting 
accident,  they  found  the  line,  belonging  to  the  above 
mentioned  boat,  in  its  mouth,  where  it  was  still  firmly 
VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xvin.  39 


438  WHALE    FISHERY. 


fixed  by  the  compression  of  its  lips.  The  occasion  of 
this  happy  and  puzzling  -accident,  was  therefore  solved  ; 
—  the  end  of  the  line,  after  being  cut  from  the  whale 
first  killed,  was  in  the  act  of  sinking  in  the  water  ;  the 
fish  in  question,  engaged  in  feeding,  was  advancing  with 
its  mouth  wide  open,  and  accidentally  caught  the  line 
between  its  extended  jaws ;  —  a  sensation  so  utterly  un- 
usual as  that  produced  by  the  line,  had  induced  it  to  shut 
its  mouth  and  grasp  the  line,  which  was  the  cause  of  its 
alarm,  so  firmly  between  its  lips,  as  to  produce  the  effect 
just  stated.  This  circumstance  took  place  many  years 
ago,  but  a  similar  one  occurred  in  the  year  1814. 

A  harpooner,  belonging  to  the  Prince  of  Brazil,  of 
Hull,  had  struck  a  small  fish.  It  descended,  and  re- 
mained for  some  time  quiet,  and  at  length  appeared  to  be 
drowned.  The  strain  on  the  line  being  then  considera- 
ble, it  was  taken  to  the  ship,  with  a  view  of  heaving  the 
fish  up.  The  force  requisite  for  performing  this  opera- 
tion, was  extremely  various ;  sometimes  the  line  came  in 
with  ease,  at  others,  a  quantity  was  withdrawn  with  great 
force  and  rapidity.  As  such,  it  appeared  evident  that 
the  fish  was  yet  alive.  The  heaving,  however,  was  per- 
sisted in,  and  after  the  greater  part  of  the  lines  had  been 
drawn  on  board,  a  dead  fish  appeared  at  the  surface,  se- 
cured by  several  turns  of  the  line  round  its  body.  It 
was  disentangled  with  difficulty,  and  was  confidently  be- 
lieved to  be  the  whale  they  had  struck.  But  when  the 
line  was  cleared  from  the  fish  it  proved  to  be  merely  the 
'  bight,'  for  the  end  still  hang  perpendicularly  downward. 
What  was  then  their  surprise  to  find  that  it  was  still  pull- 
ed away  with  considerable  force.  The  capstan  was 
again  resorted  to,  and  shortly  afterwards,  they  hove  up, 
also  dead,  the  fish  originally  struck  with  the  harpoon  still 
fast.  Hence  it  appeared,  that  the  fish  first  drawn  up,  had 
got  accidentally  entangled  with  the  line,  and  in  its  strug- 
gles to  escape,  had  still  further  involved  itself,  by  wind- 
ing the  line  repeatedly  round  its  body.  The  first  fish 
entangled,  as  was  suspected,  had  long  been  dead ;  and 
it  was  this  lucky  interloper,  that  occasioned  the  jerks  and 
other  singular  effects  observed  on  the  line. 


WHALE    FISHERY.  439 


EXTRAORDINARY    CASES. 

Hitherto  I  have  only  attempted  to  describe  thn 
method  adopted  for  the  capture  of  whales  under 
favorable  circumstances,  such  as  occur  in  open  wa- 
ter, or  amongst  open  ice  in  fine  weather.  As  however 
this  method  is  subject  to  various  alterations,  when  the 
situation  and  circumstances  are  peculiar,  1  shall  venture 
a  few  remarks  on  the  subject. 

1.  Pack  Fishing.  The  borders  of  close  packs  of 
drift  ice,  are  frequently  a  favorite  resort  of  large  whales. 
To  attack  them  in  such  a  situation  subjects  the  fisher  to 
great  risks  in  his  lines  and  boats,  as  well  as  uncertainty 
in  affecting  their  capture.  When  a  considerable  swell 
prevails  on  the  borders  of  the  ice,  the  whales  on  being 
struck,  will  sometimes  recede  from  the  pack,  and  be- 
come the  prize  of  their  assailers  ;  but  most  generally 
flee  to  it  for  shelter,  and  frequently  make  their  escape. 
To  guard  against  the  loss  of  lines  as  much  as  possible,  it 
is  pretty  usual  either  to  strike  two  harpoons  from  differ- 
ent boats  at  the  same  moment,  or  to  bridle  the  lines  of  a 
second  boat  upon  those  of  the  boat  from  which  the  fish 
is  struck.  This  operation  consists  in  fixing  other  lines 
to  those  of  the  fast-boat  at  some  distance  from  the  har- 
poon, so  that  there  is  only  one  harpoon  and  one  line  im- 
mediately attached  to  the  fish,  but  the  double  strength  of 
a  line  from  the  place  of  their  junction  to  the  boats. 
Hence,  should  fish  flee  directly  into  the  ice  and  proceed 
to  an  inaccessible  distance,  the  two  boats  bearing  an 
equal  strain  on  each  of  their  lines,  can  at  pleasure  draw 
the  harpoon,  or  break  the  sinarle  part  of  the  line  imme- 
diately connected  with  it,  and  in  either  case,  secure 
themselves  against  any  considerable  loss. 

When  a  pack,  by  its  compactness,  prevents  boats  from 
penetrating,  the  men  travel  over  the  ice,  leaping  from 
piece  to  piece,  in  pursuit  of  the  entangled  whale.  In 
this  pursuit  they  carry  lances  with  them  and  sometimes 
harpoons,  with  which,  whenever  they  can  approach  the 
fish,  they  attack  it,  and  if  they  succeed  in  killing  it  they 
drag  it  towards  the  exterior  margin  of  the  ice,  by  means 
of  the  line  fastened  to  the  harpoon  with  which  it  is  origi- 


440  WHALE    FISHERY. 


nally  struck.  In  such  cases,  it  is  generally  an  object  of 
importance  to  sink  it  beneath  the  ice  ;  for  effecting  which 
purpose,  each  lobe  of  the  tail  is  divided  from  the  body, 
excepting  a  small  portion  of  the  edge,  from  which  it 
hangs  pendulous  in  the  water.  If  it  still  floats,  bags  of 
sand,  kedges  or  small  cannon  are  suspended  by  a  block 
on  the  bight  of  the  line,  wherewith  the  buoyancy  of  the 
dead  whale  is  usually  overcome.  It  then  sinks,  and  is 
easily  hauled  out  by  the  line  into  the  open  sea. 

To  particularize  all  the  variety  of  pack  fishing  arising 
from  winds  and  weather,  size  of  the  fish,  state  and  pecu- 
liarities of  the  ice,  &c,  would  require  more  space  than 
the  interest  of  the  subject,  to  general  readers,  would 
justify.  I  shall,  therefore,  only  remark,  that  pack  fishing 
is,  on  the  whole,  the  most  troublesoin^  and  dangerous  of 
all  others; — that  instances  have  occurred  of  fish  having 
been  entangled  during  forty  or  fifty  hours,  and  have  es- 
caped after  all ;  —  and  that  other  instances  are  remem- 
bered, of  ships  having  lost  the  greater  part  of  their  stock 
of  lines,  several  of  their  boats,  and  sometimes,  though 
happily,  less  commonly,  some  individuals  of  their  crew. 

2.  Field  Fishing.  The  fishery  for  whales,  when 
conducted  at  the  margin  of  those  wonderful  sheets  of 
solfd  ice,  called  fields,  is,  when  the  weather  is  fine  and 
the  refuge  for  ships  secure,  of  all  other  situations  which 
the  fishery  of  Greenland  presents,  the  most  agreeable 
and  sometimes  the  most  productive.  A  fish  struck  at 
the  margin  of  a  large  field  of  ice,  generally  descends 
obliquely  beneath  it,  takes  four  to  eight  lines  from  the 
fast-boat,  and  then  returns  exhausted  to  the  edge.  It  is 
then  attacked  in  the  usual  way,  with  harpoons  and  lan- 
ces, and  is  easily  killed.  There  is  one  evident  advan- 
tage in  field  fishing,  which  is  this.  When  the  fast-boat 
lies  at  the  edge  of  a  firm  unbroken  field,  and  the  line  pro- 
ceeds in  an  angle  beneath  the  ice,  the  fish  must  necessa- 
rily arise  somewhere  in  a  semicircle,  described  from  the 
fast-boat  as  a  centre,  with  a  sweep  not  exceeding  the 
length  of  the  lines  out;  but  most  generally  it  appears  in 
a  line  extending  along  the  margin  of  the  ice,  so  that  the 
boats,  when  dispersed  along  the  edge  of  the  field,  are  ef- 
fectual and  as  ready  for  promoting  the  capture,  as  twice 


WHALE    FISHERY.  441 


the  number  of  boats  or  more,  when  fishing  in  open  situ- 
ations ;  because,  -in  open  situations  the  whale  may  arise 
anywhere  within  a  circle,  instead  of  a  semicircle,  de- 
scribed by  the  length  of  the  lines  withdrawn  from  the 
fast-boat.  In  consequence  of  this,  it  frequently  happens 
that  all  the  attendant  boats  are  disposed  in  a  wrong  di- 
rection, and  the  fish,  recovers  its  breath,  breaks  loose, 
and  escapes  before  any  of  them  can  secure  it  by  a  second 
harpoon.  Hence,  when  a  ship  fishes  at  a  field,  with  an 
ordinary  crew,  and  six  or  seven  boats,  two  of  the  largest 
fish  may  be  struck  at  the  same  time  with  every  prospect 
of  success,  while  the  same  force  attempting  the  capture 
of  two  at  once,  in  an  open  situation  will,  not  unfrequent- 
ly,  occasion  the  loss  of  both.  There  have  indeed  been 
instances  of  a  ship%  crew,  with  seven  boats,  striking  at  a 
field,  six  fish  at  the  same  time,  and  of  success  in  killing 
the  whole.  Generally  speaking,  six  boats  at  a  field  are 
capable  of  performing  the  same  execution,  as  near  twice 
that  number  in  open  situations.  Besides,  fields  some- 
times afford  an  opportunity  of  fishing,  when  in  any  other 
situation  there  can  be  little  or  no  chance  of  success,  or, 
indeed,  when  to  fish  elsewhere  is  utterly  impracticable. 
Thus  calms,  storms,  and  fogs,  are  great  annoyances  in 
the  fishery  in  general,  and  frequently  prevent  it  alto- 
gether ;  but  at  fields  the  fishery  goes  on  under  any  of 
these  disadvantages,  As  there  are  several  important  ad- 
vantages attending  the  fishery  at  fields,  so,  likewise, 
there  are  some  serious  disadvantages,  chiefly  relating  to 
the  safety,  of  the  ships  engaged  in  the  occupation.  The 
motions  of  fields  are  rapid,  various,  and  unaccountable, 
and  the  power  with  which  they  approach  each  other  and 
squeeze  every  resisting  object,  immense,  —  hence  occa- 
sionally vast  mischief  is  produced,  which  it  is  not  always 
in  the  power  of  the  most  skilful  and  attentive  master  to 
forsee  and  prevent. 

Thin  fields,  or  fields  full  of  holes,  are  usually  avoided, 
because  a  '  fast  fish,'  retreating  under  such  a  field,  can 
respire  through  the  holes  in  the  centre  as  conveniently  as 
on  the  exterior  ;  and  a  large  fish  usually  proceeds  from 
one  hole  to  another,  and  if  determined  to  advance  cannot 
possibly  be  stopped.  In  this'case  all  that  can  be  done  is, 

VOL.  r.  —  NO.  xvni.         39* 


442  WHALE    FISHERY. 


to  break  the  line  or  draw  the  harpoon  out.  But  when 
the  fish  can  be  observed  '  blowing,'  in  any  of  the  holes 
iu  a  field,  the  men  travel  over  the  ice  and  attack  it  with 
lances,  pricking  it  over  the  nose,  to  endeavor  to  turn  it 
back.  This  scheme,  however,  does  not  always  answer 
the  expectation  of  the  fishers,  as  frequently  the  fear  of 
his  enemies  acts  so  powerfully  on  the  whale,  that  he 
pushes  forward  to  the  interior,  to  his  dying  moment. 
When  killed,  the  same  means  are  used  as  in  pack  fishing, 
to  sink  it,  but  they  do  not  always  succeed  ;  for  the  har- 
poon is  frequently  drawn  out,  or  the  line  broken  in  the 
attempt.  If,  therefore,  no  attempt  to  sink  the  fish  avails, 
there  is  scarcely  any  other  practicable  method  of  making 
prize  of  it,  (unless  when  the  ice  happens  to  be  so  thin 
that  it  can  be  broken  with  a  boat,  ••  a  channel  readily 
cut  in  it  with  an  ice  saw,)  than  cutting  the  blubber  away, 
and  dragging  it  piece  by  piece,  across  the  ice  to  the  ves- 
sel, which  requires  immense  labor  and  is  attended  with 
vast  loss  of  time.  Hence,  we  have  a  sufficient  reason 
for  avoiding  such  situations  whenever  fish  can  be  found 
elsewhere.  As  connected  with  this  subject,  I  cannot 
pass  over  a  circumstance  which  occurred  within  my  own 
observation,  and  which  excited  my  highest  admiration. 

On  the  8th  of  July,  1813,  the  ship  Esk,  lay  by  the 
edge  of  a  large  sheet  of  ice,  in  which  were  several  thin 
parts,  and  some  holes.  Here  a  fish  being  heard  blowing, 
a  harpoon,  with  a  line  connected  to  it,  was  conveyed 
across  the  ice,  from  a  boat  on  guard,  and  the  harpooner 
succeeded  in  striking  the'  whale  at  the  distance  of  350 
yards  from  the  verge.  It  dragged  out  ten  lines,  (2400 
yards)  and  was  supposed  to  be  seen  blowing  in  different 
holes  in  the  ice.  After  some  time  it  happened  to  make 
its  appearance  on  the  exterior,  when  a  harpoon  was 
struck  at  the  moment  it  was  proceeding  again  beneath. 
About  a  hundred  yards  from  the  edge  it  broke  the  ice 
where  it  was  a  foot  in  thickness,  with  its  crown,  and  re- 
spired through  the  opening.  It  then  determinately  push- 
ed forward,  breaking  the  ice  as  it  advanced,  in  spite  of 
the  lances  constantly  directed  against  it.  It  reached,  at 
length,  a  kind  of  basin  in  the  field,  where  it  floated  on 
the  surface  of  the  water,  without  any  incumbrance  from 


WHALE    FISHERY.  443 


ice.  Its  back  being  fairly  exposed,  the  harpoon,  struck 
from  the  boat  on  the  outside,  was  observed  to  be  so 
slightly  entangled  that  it  was  ready  to  drop  out.  Some 
of  the  officers  lamented  this  circumstance,  and  expressed 
a  wish  that  the  harpoon  were  better  fast ;  observing,  at 
the  same  time,  that  if  it  should  slip  out,  the  whale  would 
either  be  lost,  or  they  would  be  under  the  necessity  of 
cutting  it  up  where  it  lay,  and  of  dragging  the  pieces  of 
blubber  over  the  ice  to  the  ship ;  a  kind  and  degree  of 
labor  which  every  one  was  anxious  to  avoid.  No  sooner 
was  the  wish  expressed,  and  its  importance  made  known, 
than  one  of  the  sailors,  a  smart  and  enterprising  fellow, 
slept  forward  and  volunteered  his  services  to  strike  it 
better  in.  Not  at  all  intimidated  by  the  surprise  which 
was  manifested  in  every  countenance,  by  snch  a  bold 
proposal,  he  pulled  out  his  pocket  knife,  leaped  upon  the 
back  of  the  living  whale,  and  immediately  cut  the  har- 
poon out.  Stimulated  by  this  courageous  example,  one 
of  his  companions  proceeded  to  his  assistance.  While 
one  of  them  hauled  upon  the  line  and  held  it  in  his  hands, 
the  other  set  his  shoulder  against  the  extremity  of  the 
harpoon,  and  though  it  was  without  a  stock,  he  contrived 
to  strike  it  again  into  the  fish  more  effectually  than  it 
was  at  first ;  the  fish  was  in  motion  before  they  finished. 
After  they  got  off  its  back  it  advanced  a  considerable 
distance,  breaking  the  ice  all  the  way,  and  survived  this 
uncommon  treatment  ten  or  fifteen  minutes.  This  ad- 
mirable act  was  an  essential  benefit.  The  fish  fortunately 
sunk  spontaneously  after  being  killed,  on  which  it  was 
hauled  out  to  the  edge  of  the  ice  by  the  line,  and  secured 
without  further  trouble.  It  proved  a  stout  whale,  and  an 
acceptable  prize. 

Fishing  in  Crowded  Ice  or  in  Open  Packs.  — 
In  navigable  open  drift  ice,  or  among  small  detached 
streams  and  patches,  either  of  which  serve  in  a  degree 
to  break  the  force  of  the  sea,  and  to  prevent  any  consid- 
erable swell  from  arising,  we  have  a  situation  which  is 
considered  as  one  of  the  best  possible  for  conducting  the 
fishery  in  ;  consequently,  it  comes  under  the  same  de- 
nomination as  those  favorable  situations,  in  which  I  have 
first  attempted  to  describe  the  proceedings  of  the  fishers 


444  WHALE    FISHERY. 


in  killing  the  whale.  But  the  situation  I  now  mean  to 
refer  to,  is,  when  the  ice  is  crowded  and  nearly  close  ; 
so  close,  indeed,  that  it  scarcely  affords  room  for  boats  to 
pass  through  it,  and  by  no  means  sufficient  space  for  a 
ship  to  be  navigated  among  it.  This  kind  of  situation 
occurs  in  somewhat  open  packs,  or  in  large  patches  of 
crowded  ice,  and  affords  a  fair  probability  of  capturing  a 
whale,  though  it  is  seldom  accomplished  without  a  con- 
siderable degree  of  trouble.  When  the  ice  is  very 
crowded,  and  the  ship  cannot  sail  into  it  with  propriety, 
it  is  usual  to  seek  out  for  a  mooring  to  some  large  mass 
of  ice,  if  such  can  be  found,  extending  two  or  three 
fathoms  or  more  under  water.. 

A  piece  of  ice  of  this  kind,  is  capable  not  only  of 
holding  the  ship  '  head-to-wind,'  but  also  to  windward  of 
the  smaller  ice.  The  boats  then  set  out  in  chase  of  any 
fish  which  may  be  seen  ;  and  when  one  happens  to  be 
struck,  they  proceed  in  the  capture  in  a  similar  manner 
as  when  in  more  favorable  circumstances,  excepting  so 
far  as  the  obstruction  which  the  quality  and  arrangement 
of  the  ice  may  offer,  to  the  regular  system  of  proceeding. 
Among  crowded  ice,  for  instance,  the  precise  direction 
pursued  by  the  fish  is  not  easily  ascertained,  nor  can  the 
fish  itself  be  readily  discovered  on  its  first  arrival  at  the 
surface,  after  being  struck,  on  account  of  the  elevation 
of  the  intervening  masses  of  ice,  and  the  great  quantity 
of  line  it  frequently  takes  from  the  fast-boat.  Success 
in  such  a  situation,  depends  on  the  boats  being  spread 
widely  abroad,  and  on  a  judicious  arrangement  of  each 
boat,  or  a  keen  look  out  on  the  part  of  the  harpooners  in 
the  boat,  and  on  their  occasionally  taking  the  benefit  of 
a  hummack  of  ice,  from  the  elevation  of  which  the  fish 
may  sometimes  be  seen  '  blowing  '  in  the  interstices  of  the 
ice  ;  or  pushing  or  rowing  the  boats  with  the  greatest 
imaginable  celerity,  towards  the  place  where  the  fish  may 
have  been  seen  ;  and,  lastly,  on  the  exercise  of  the  high- 
est degree  of  activity  and  despatch  in  every  proceeding. 

If  these  means  be  neglected,  the  fish  will  generally 
have  taken  his  breath,  renewed  his  strength,  and  remov- 
ed to  some  other  quarter,  before  the  arrival  of  the  boats ; 
and  it  is  often  remarked,  that  if  there  be  one  part  of  the 


WHALE    FISHERY.  445 


ice  more  crowded  or  more  difficult  of  access  than  anoth- 
"  er,  it  commonly  retreats  thither  for  refuge.  In  such 
cases,  the  sailors  find  much  difficulty  in  getting  to  it  with 
their  boats  ;  having  to  separate  many  pieces  of  ice  before 
they  can  pass  through  between  them.  But  when  it 
is  not  practicable  to  move  the  pieces,  and  when 
they  cannot  travel  over  them,  they  must  either  drag  the 
boats  across  the  intermediate  ice,  or  perform  an  extensive 
circuit,  before  they  can  reach  the  opposite  side  of  the 
close  ice  into  which  the  whale  has  retreated.  A  second 
harpoon,  in  this  case,  as  indeed  in  all  others,  is  a  material 
point.  They  proceed  to  lance  whenever  a  second  har- 
poon is  struck,  and  strike  more  harpoons  as  the  auxiliary 
boats  progressively  arrive  at  the  place. 

Fishing  in  Stowis.  Except  in  situations  sheltered 
from  the  sea  by  ice,  it  would  be  alike  useless  and  pre- 
sumptuous to  attempt  to  kill  whales  during  a  storm. 
Cases,  however,  occur,  wherein  fish  that  weie  struck 
during  fine  weather,  in  winds  which  do  not  prevent  the 
boats  from  plying  about,  remain  entangled,  but  unsub- 
dued, after  the  commencement  of  a  storm.  Sometimes 
the  capture  is  completed,  at  others,  the  fishers  are  under 
the  necessity  of  cutting  the  lines,  and  allowing  the  fish 
to  escape.  Sometimes,  when  they  have  succeeded  in 
killing  it,  and  in  securing  it  during  the  gale,  with  a  haw- 
ser to  the  ship,  they  are  enabled  to  make  a  prize  of  it  on 
the  return  of  moderate  weather  ;  at  others,  after  having 
it  to  appearance  secured,  by  means  of  a  sufficient  rope, 
the  dangerous  proximity  of  a  pack  of  ice  constrains 
them  to  cut  it  adrift  and  abandon  it,  for  the  preservation 
of  their  vessel.  After  thus  being  abandoned,  it  becomes 
the  prize  of  the  first  who  gets  possession  of  it,  though  it 
be  in  the  face  of  the  original  captors.  A  storm  com- 
mencing while  the  boats  are  engaged  with  an  entangled 
fish,  sometimes  occasions  serious  disasters.  Generally, 
however,  though  they  suffer  the  loss  of  the  fish,  and  per- 
haps some  of  their  boats  and  materials,  yet  the  men 
escape  with  their  lives. 

Fishing  in  Foggy  Weather.  The  fishery  in  stoims, 
in  exposed  situations,  can  never  be  voluntary,  as  the  case 
only  Mnpens  when  a  storm  arises  subsequent  to  the  time 


446  WHALE    FISHERY. 


of  a  fish  being  struck  ;  but  in  foggy  weather,  though  oc- 
casionally attended  with  hazard,  the  fishery  is  not  alto- 
gether impracticable.  The  fogs  which  occur  in  the  icy 
regions  in  June  and  July,  are  generally  dense  and  lasting. 
They  are  so  thick,  that  objects  cannot  be  distinguished 
at  the  distance  of  100  or  150  yards,  and  frequently  con- 
tinue for  several  days  without  attenuation.  To  fish  with 
safety  and  success,  during  a  thick  fog,  is,  therefore,  a 
matter  of  difficulty,  and  of  still  greater  uncertainty. 
When  it  happens  that  a  fish  conducts  itself  favorably, 
that  is,  descends  almost  perpendicularly,  and  on  its  return 
to  the  surface  remains  nearly  stationary,  or  moves  round 
in  a  small  circle,  the  capture  is  usually  accomplished 
without  hazard  or  particular  difficulty  ;  but  when  on  the 
contrary  it  proceeds  with  any  considerable  velocity  in  a 
horizontal  direction,  or  obliquely  downwards,  it  soon 
drags  the  boats  out  of  sight  of  the  ship,  and  shortly  so 
confounds  the  fishers  in  the  intensity  of  the  mist,  that 
they  lose  all  traces  of  the  situation  of  their  vessel.  If 
the  fish,  in  its  flight,  draws  them  beyond  the  reach  of 
the  sound  of  a  bell  or  a  horn,  their  personal  safety  be- 
comes endangered ;  and  if  they  are  removed  beyond  the 
sound  of  a  cannon,  their  situation  becomes  extremely 
hazardous,  especially  if  no  other  ships  happen  to  be  in 
the  immediate  vicinity.  Meanwhile,  whatever  may  be 
their  imaginary  or  real  danger,  the  mind  of  their  com- 
mander must  be  kept  in  the  most  anxious  suspense,  until 
they  are  found  ;  and  whether  they  may  be  in  safety,  or 
near  perishing  with  fatigue,  hunger,  and  cold,  so  long  as 
he  is  uncertain,  his  anxiety  must  be  the  same.  Hence 
it  is,  that  feelings  excited  by  uncertainty,  are  frequently 
more  violent  and  distressing,  than  those  produced  by  the 
actual  knowledge  of  the  truth. 

Such  are  the  methods  by  which,  according  to  Scoresby, 
this  monster"  of  the  deep  is  compelled  to  submit  to  the 
very  far  inferior  force  of  man.  The  dangers  attending 
this  occupation  have  a  peculiar  effect  upon  those  engaged 
in  it.  They  awaken  in  their  breasts  a  most  ardent  in- 
terest in  the  employment.  The  excitement  produced  by 
the  chace,  and  the  congratulation  and  enjoyment  result- 
ing from  the  victory,  are  scarcely  equalled  by  any  other 


WHALE    FISHERY.  447 


human  pursuit.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  capture 
of  every  whale  shortens  the  voyage.  The  ship  is  to  re- 
main upon  the  station  until  her  cargo  is  completed  ;  and 
of  course  the  sailor  sees  in  every  victory,  that  the  time 
of  his  return  to  country  and  home  draws  nigh.  This 
consideration  produces  no  trifling  effects,  as  we  may 
easily  conceive,  by  taking  into  consideration  the  length 
and  the  distance  of  the  voyages. 

Besides,  it  is,  in  this  country  we  believe,  the  uniform 
practice  to  allow  every  sailor  a  share  of  the  cargo  for 
his  pay.  This  makes  the  business  a  common  cause.  In 
fact,  it  would  probably  be  difficult  or  impossible  to  man- 
age so  laborious  and  hazardous  a  business,  with  any 
proper  degree  of  spirit,  in  any  other  way.  Upon  this 
plan  of  allowing  each  sailor  a  regular  share  of  the  profits, 
each  one  considers  every  captured  whale  as  in  part  his 
property.  He  pursues  him  with  the  spirit  and  energy 
which  a  man  feels  who  is  toiling  for  himself,  and  during 
the  return  voyage  he  feels  the  interest  of  an  owner  in  the 
ship  and  cargo.  He  is  joint  owner.  The  valuable  com- 
modities which  his  skill  and  courage  have  procured,  are 
in  part  his  property  and  he  inquires  with  eager  interest, 
on  his  landing,  into  the  state  of  the  market,  —  the  price 
of  the  whalebone  and  oil  ;  for  the  pecuniary  result  of 
the  voyage,  to  him,  is  not  decided  till  the  cargo  is  sold. 
So  completely  does  the  system  identify  the  interest  of  the 
sailor  with  the  final  success  of  the  enterprise. 
•  In  a  future  number  we  may  pursue  this  subject,  by  de- 
scribing the  processes  in  this  business,  subsequent  to  the 
capture  of  the  whale. 


$                                           !L—  —  —  —  -4 

AGENTS 

FOU  THE 

SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

MAINS. 

Norwich,            Thomas  Rolinton. 

Portland,          Samuel  Colman. 
Hallowell,         C.  Spaulding. 
Augusta,           P.  J.  Briis,nadc. 
Ban^or              B.  Nourse. 

Middlctown,       F.dtcin  Hunt. 
NEW  YORK. 
New  York,          Charles  S.  Francis. 
Albany,               Little  tf    Cummiiirs 

Belfast,              JV.  P.  Hatces. 

Canandaigua,     Bemis  $   Wwd. 

Troy,                    W.  S.  Parker. 

Eastport,        j  f  ;  ^^ 

Utica,                 G  S.  Wilson. 

Norway,           Asa  Barton. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Rochester,          £.  Peck  If   Co. 
NEW  JERSEY. 
Trenton,              D.  Fenton. 

Dover,            \  Kli  Frc"chi 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Hanover,            Thomas  Mann. 
Concord,            Horatio  mil  $   Co. 

Philadelphia,  |  ^^f^f**' 
MARYLAND. 

Keene,               Geora-e  Ti!d:n. 
Portsmouth,      John  W.  Foster. 

Baltimore,          Charles  Carter. 
DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

VERMONT. 
Burlington,       C.  Goodrich. 
Brattluboro',     Gfo.  //.  Peck. 

Washington,      Thompson  #  Homans. 
Georgetown,       James  Thomas. 
VIRGINIA. 

Windsor,           Simeon  Ide. 

Fredericksburg,  Wm..  F.  Gray,  P.  X. 

Montpelier,       J.  S.   Walton. 

OHIO. 

Bellows  Falls,  James  I.  Cutler  tf  Co. 
Rutland,             Wm.  Fay 

r-  ^'n  »»•       lPkillips,SpearSfDralie. 
Cincinnati,    j  CD  FBru'dfor/  ^  Co. 

Middlebury,      Jonathan  Hagar. 
Castleton,          B.  Burtun  2d. 

Columbus,          J.  JY.  W  kiting. 
MISSISSIPPI. 

St  Albans,         L.  L.  Duecher. 

Natches,            F.  Beaumont. 

Chester,             Charles  Tf  hippie. 
MASSACHUSETTS. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 
Charleston,        F.benezer  Tkayer. 

Salem,                T-f  hippie  $  Lawrence. 
Vewburyport,  Charles   IVhipplc. 

Chorau,               Dr  Maiinard.  ~ 
NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Northampton,  S.  Butler  4-  Son. 
Andover,           M.  JYcicman. 

Raleigh,             Turner  if   Hughes. 
GEORGIA. 

Worcester,        Dorr  $  Holland. 

ALABAMA. 

Springfield,        Thomas  Dickman. 
New  I'fcdforJ,   Ji.Sltearman,.Tr.i{  Co. 

Mobile,             Odiorne  Sf  Smith. 
LOUISIANA. 

Methuen,           J.  W.   Co.rlt.on  *{  Co. 
Brookfield,        E.  tf  G.  Merriam. 

New  Orleans,    J»:«rw  Carroll. 
MICHIGAN  TERRITORY. 

RHODE  ISLAND. 
Prnv.  ,pn.p     <  Corey  If  B'owv, 

Detroit,             George  L.   if/ntney. 
,      CANADA. 

Providence,    l^    ^  Bfc,.,rit,l 

Montreal,          //.  11.  Cunningham. 

CONNECTICUT. 

Quebec,             JVYi7*»7i  Sf  Cowan. 

Hartford,           //.  Q  F.  ./.  llnntington 

ENGLAND. 

New  Haven,     Ji.  H.  Maltby 

Ixindon,            John  JUantcn. 

PUBLISHED    BY    CARTER     AND     HENDEE. 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 

ETON                                                                                      T 

*#*  TERMS  —  24  Numbers  a  year,  at  O:XE  DOLLAR  AND  FIFTY 

CENTS. 

SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS. 

NUMBER   XIX. 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

I. —  THE    PECULIARITIES  WHICH    DISTINGUISH  MAN    FROM 
ALL    OTHER   ANIMALS. 

*  THE  physical  organization  of  man,  while  it  subjects 
him  to  those  laws  of  generation,  growth  and  dissolution, 
which  extend  to  all  orders  of  living  nature,  bears  at  the 
same  time,  in  each  of  its  parts,  and  as  a  whole,  a  charac- 
ter so  peculiar,  so  extraordinary  and  so  sublime,  that  it 
is  impossible  to  suppose  even  the  most  distant  relation- 
ship between  the  brutes,  who  do  nothing  but  feed  and 
propagate  on  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  him  who  is 
born  to  exercise  dominion  over  them.  That  upright  and 
elevated  part,  which  indicates  both  dignity  and  courage ; 
those  hands,  the  trusty  instruments  of  our  will,  the  dex- 
terous performers  of  the  most  magnificent,  as  well  as  the 
most  useful  works;  those  eyes  uplifted  from  the  dust, 
whose  intelligent  glance  can  survey  the  immensity  of  the 
heavens  ;  those  organs  which  enable  us  to  express  thought 
by  articulate  sounds  of  endless  variety ;  the  admirable 
union  of  strength  and  suppleness  in  all  our  members; 
finally  the  harmony  and  perfectibility  of  all  our  senses, 
assign  to  us  the  first  rank  among  living  beings,  and  give 
us  both  the  right  to  claim  and  the  power  to  hold  the  em- 
pire of  the  earth. 

'Anatomy  and  physiology  have  placed  these  truths  be- 
yond the  reach  of  dispute.  Those  naturalists  who  have 
pretended  to  confound  the  human  species  with  that  of 
monkeys,  notwithstanding  the  essential  difference  in 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xix.  40 


450  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

the  feet,  in  the  organs  of  speech,  and  the  notes  of  the 
voice,  appear  to  recognise  no  fixed  principles  whatever 
in  their  classification  of  the  species  of  animals.'* 

Strange  as  it  may  seem,  many  persons  have  attempted 
to  confound  mankind  with  monkeys,  supposing  them  to 
compose  one  and  the  same  species.  And  as  one  horse 
is  better  —  of  more  perfect  form,  and  noble  appearance 
than  another,  so  are  some  monkeys  who  are  called  men 
superior  in  instinct  and  in  appearance  to  their  brethren 
who  are  chattering  in  the  woods.  A  tail  is  a  very  con- 
venient appendage  to  the  monkeys  of  the  woods,  but 
Lord  Monboddo  supposes  that  civilization  having  intro- 
duced the  custom  of  sitting  doicn,  this  appendage  has 
been  worn  off.  The  stories  that  have  been  told  of  the 
Ourang  Outang,  and  of  his  striking  resemblance  to  the 
human  race  are  greatly  exaggerated.  This  native  of  the 
tropical  forests  is  a  disgusting  little  animal  running 
upon  all  fours,  but  capable  of  being  taught,  like  the  dog, 
to  stand  erect.  This  is  never  his  natural  attitude,  and 
the  anatomical  structure  of  his  limbs,  renders  it  impossi- 
ble that  it  should  be.  This  animal  is  made  for  climbing, 
and  its  feet  are  constructed  in  such  a  manner  as  to  en- 
able it  to  grasp  hold  of  the  branches.  It  is  covered  with 
coarse  hair,  and  has  features  but  little  more  resembling 
the  human  than  the  dog.  And  this  is  the  disgusting 
creature  with  which  some  of  our  fellow  men  have  claim- 
ed relationship. 

Many  marvellous  stories  have  been  related  of  wild  men 
found  in  the  woods  who  were  unable  to  speak,  who  run 
upon  all  fours,  and  ascended  trees  with  the  swiftness  of 
the  wild-cat.  But  not  one  of  these  stories  are  well  au- 
thenticated. A  slave  ship  was  once  wrecked  upon  the 
coast  of  France.  One  of  the  negro  girls  swam  ashore, 
the  rest  of  the  crew  were  lost.  She  was  found  in  the 
woods.  As  she  had  just  been  brought  from  the  wilds  of 
Africa,  she  of  course  could  not  converse  in  French,  and 
people  thought  she  could  not  talk  at  all.  Wonderful  sto- 
ries were  told  about  her.  She  was  however,  instructed 
in  the  French  language  by  the  hospitable  family,  into 

*  Malte  Brun. 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED.  451 

whose  hands  she  fell,  and  was  thus  enabled  to  give  an 
account  of  herself,  and  thus  put  to  flight  the  dreams  of 
those  self-called  philosophers,  who  would  infer  that  the 
natural  state  of  man  was  like  that  of  the  monkey,  without 
speech,  and  without  reason.  Voltaire  says  that  if  any 
one  wishes  to  learn  the  habits  of  the  bee,  he  will  not 
take  a  solitary  one  that  has  wandered  from  the  hive  and 
is  lost,  and  neither  should  we,  in  learning  the  nature  and 
the  habits  of  man,  take  an  individual  who  from  some  un- 
known cause  has  been  thrown  off  from  his  companions, 
and  wanders  alone  in  the  solitude  of  the  forest.  And 
yet  from  a  few  fanciful  stories,  like  that  of  the  young  ne- 
gress  just  related,  Monboddo  and  Rousseau,  followed  by 
a  retinue  of  admiring  disciples,  have  inferred  that  man 
and  the  monkey  are  of  the  same  species.  Says  Mon- 
boddo, '  the  Ourang  Outangs  are  proved  to  be  of  our 
species,  by  marks  of  humanity  that  I  think  are  incontest- 
able.' This  truly  is  not  a  very  complimentary  conclu- 
sion. Rousseau  states  this  idea  in  terms  still  more  revolt- 
ing. '  All  these  varieties  which  a  thousand  causes  have 
produced  and  are  producing,  lead  me  to  believe,  that 
many  animals  which  voyagers  have  taken  for  brutes,  be- 
cause there  was  some  difference  in  their  exterior  confor- 
mation, or  because  they  could  not  speak,  were  in  reality 
savage  men  whose  race  has  been  for  a  long  period  dis- 
persed in  the  woods,  and  have  had  no  occasion  to  devel- 
ope  any  of  their  virtuous  faculties,  and  have  acquired  no 
degree  of  perfection,  but  remain  in  the  primitive  state  of 
nature.'  The  gentlemen  therefore,  who  shoots  a  mon- 
key in  the  forest  of  Borneo  sheds  the  blood  of  his  fellow 
man,  and  by  the  laws  both  of  God  and  man  is  a  murderer. 

The  pretended  facts  which  are  adduced  in  support  of 
this  theory  are  unsatisfactory  and  trifling  in  the  extreme. 
The  history  of  Peter  the  wild  boy,  is  one  of  the  most  au- 
thentic cases. 

In  July,  1724,  Jurgen  Mayer  was  walking  in  his  field 
in  Hanover,  and  found  a  naked  black  haired  boy  about 
twelve  years  of  age.  The  boy  did  not  seem  much  afraid 
of  him,  and  the  man  by  showing  him  two  apples  enticed 
him  home  and  secured  him.  He  could  not  speak.  Ap- 
parently he  had  lived  for  some  time  in  the  woods,  upon 


MAN.    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 


berries  and  roots.  The  children  in  the  town  when  they 
first  saw  him  called  him  Peter,  and  he  ever  afterwards 
went  by  that  name.  He  appeared  nearly  destitute  of 
sense  —  did  not  like  bread,  but  would  eat  grass,  bean 
shells,  and  the  peeling  of  green  sticks.  He  was  very 
averse  to  any  clothing,  but  soon  became  accustomed  to 
it.  Monboddo  and  Rousseau  were  in  raptures  when  they 
heard  of  the  discovery  of  this  wild  boy.  They  consider- 
ed him  the  true  child  of  nature  —  man  in  his  genuine, 
and  unsophisticated  state.  Monboddo  says,  '  I  consider 
his  history  as  a  brief  chronicle,  or  abstract  of  the  history 
of  the  progress  of  human  nature,  from  the  mere  animal 
to  the  first  stage  of  civilized  life.'  About  this  time  meta- 
physicians were  in  a  warm  controversy  respecting  innate 
ideas,  and  this  poor  boy  was  entrusted  to  the  care  of  Dr 
Arbuthnot,  that  he  might  watch  the  development  of  his 
innate  ideas  and  thus  determine  the  question. 

But  unfortunately  some  subsequent  facts  came  to  light 
which  put  to  flight  all  their  hopes.  It  seems  that  when 
he  was  first  met  a  small  fragment  of  a  shirt  hung  about 
his  neck ;  and  the  whiteness  of  one  part  of  his  body 
contrasted  with  the  brownness  of  other  parts,  proved 
that  he  must  have  worn  trowsers,  though  not  stockings. 
Some  boatmen  descending  the  river  Weser,  upon  whose 
banks  he  was  found,  had  several  times  seen  a  poor  nak- 
ed boy  and  had  given  him  food.  By  following  up  these  in- 
quiries, at  length  it  was  ascertained,  this  child  was  born 
an  idiot  and  dumb,  —  that  he  once  was  lost  in  the  woods 
for  some  time  and  again  returned  home.  Upon  his 
father's  second  marriage,  a  cruel  stepmother  drove  him 
again  from  home.  And  this  poor  idiot  was  made  the 
foundation  of  an  argument  intended  to  elevate  the  mon- 
key and  to  degrade  mankind. 

Some  philosophers,  have  gone  even  farther  than  this. 
They  claim  affinity  with  the  oyster !  As  we  retrace  the 
line  of  our  ancestry  we  are  landed  in  the  humble  origin 
of  a  bed  of  oysters.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  1  '  Dr 
Darwin*  seriously  conjectures  that  as  aquatic  animals 

*  Dr  Erasmus  Darwin  was  born  at  Newark,  in  Nottinghamshire, 
1732.  He  was  a  man  ofliberal  education;  devoted  himself  pariicu- 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED.  453 

appear  to  have  been  produced  before  terrestrial,  and 
every  living  substance  to  have  originated  from  a  form  of 
nucleus  exquisitely  simple  and  minute,  and  to  have  been 
perpetually  developing  and  expanding  its  powers,  and 
progressively  advancing  towards  perfection.  Man  him- 
self must  have  been  of  the  aquatic  order  on  his  first  crea- 
tion ,  at  that  time  indeed  imperceptible  from  his  exility, 
but  in  process  of  years  or  rather  of  ages,  acquiring  a  visi- 
ble or  oyster  like  form,  with  little  gills  instead  of  lungs, 
and  like  the  oyster  produced  spontaneously,  without  dis- 
tinction into  sexes ;  that  as  reproduction  is  always  favor- 
able to  improvement,  the  aquatic  or  oyster  mannikin,  by 
being  progressively  accustomed  to  seek  its  food  on  the 
nascent  shores  or  edges  of  the  primeval  ocean,  must  have 
grown,  after  a  revolution  of  countless  generations,  first 
into  an  amphibious,  and  then  into  a  terrestrial  animal  ; 
and  in  like  manner,  from  being  without  sex,  first  also 
into  an  androgynous*  form,  and  thence  into  distinct  male 
and  female.'  What  a  blessing  it  is  to  the  world,  that 
some  hungry  man,  did  not  in  ages  which  are  past,  swal- 
low for  his  dinner,  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  oyster  parents  ! 

Such  are  theories  which  have  been  advocated  in  con- 
tradiction to  the  simple  account  of  the  sacred  historian. 
How  puerile  and  ridiculous  do  they  appear  when  con- 
trasted with  the  beautiful  simplicity  of  the  Bible.  It  is 
there  stated  that  God  created  Adam  and  Eve,  and  from 
them  the  whole  human  family  has  descended.  And  yet 
will  men  for  the  sake  of  furnishing  arguments  against 
the  Bible,  acknowledge  the  baboon  for  their  brother  and 
the  clotted  oyster  for  their  father.  They  call  this  phi- 
losophy and  science  —  breaking  away  from  the  shackles 
of  superstition. 

Such  speculations  as  these  only  deserve  notice  to 
show  into  what  wild  vagaries  the  human  mind  may  wan- 

larly  to  the  study  of  physics,  and  wrote  largely  upon  that  subject. 
He  also  wrote  some  verses  of  no  inconsiderable  elegance  and  beauty. 
As  a  physician  he  acquired  great  celebrity,  and  all  his  philosophical 
works  show  a  mind  strong  and  enriched  with  reading,  but  wild  and 
fanciful.  He  died  suddenly  at  Derby,  in  1802. 

*  Androgynous.     Uniting  both  sexes. 
VOL.  I. NO.    XIX.  40* 


454  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

der,  even  under  a  state  of  high  cultivation.  Nothing  ft^uj, 
be  more  evident  than  that  the  human  race,  is  totally  distinct 
from  all  other  animals.  Says  Lawrence,  'the  human 
species  has  numerous  distinctive  marks,  by  which  under 
every  circumstance  of  deficient  or  imperfect  civilisation, 
and  every  variety  of  country  and  race,  it  is  separated  by 
a  broad  and  clearly  denned  interval  from  all  other 
animals.' 

The  following  circumstances  are  abundantly  sufficient 
to  characterise  man,  and  distinguish  him  from  all  other 
animals. 

1.  Smoothness  of  skin.     There  is  no  animal  but  man, 
who  is  not  furnished  by  its  Creator  with  natural  clothing. 
Stories  have  been  told  of  hairy  nations,  but  they  are  un- 
founded.    A  smooth  skin  is  peculiar  to  the  human  fami- 
ly.    The  monkey  and  the  ourang  outang,  who  have  so 
frequently  and  with  such  little  cause  been  compared  with 
man,  are  nearly  covered  with  hair,  and  no  parts  of  their 
bodies  present  any  resemblance  to  the  human  face. 

2.  Erect    Stature.      Man    alone    has   an    anatomical 
structure  which  makes  the  erect  posture  natural  to  him. 
The  dog   and  the  monkey   and  some  other  animals  may 
be  taught  to  stand  upon  their  hind  legs,  but  this  position 
is  about  as   unnatural  to  them,  as  it  would  be  for  a  man 
to  stand  upon  his  hands.     No  nation,  or  tribe,  or  healthy 
individual  has  ever  yet  been  found   with  whom  the  up- 
right attitude  was   not    natural.      Whenever  we  find  a 
race  of  men  running  upon  all  fours,  and  a  tribe  of  mon- 
keys walking  erect,  we  will  admit  the  claims  of  rela- 
tionship. 

3.  Possession  of  two  hands.     The  monkey  is  some- 
times said    to  be    four  handed,  instead  of  four    footed. 
'  They  live  chiefly  in  trees  for  which  they  are  admirably 
adapted  by  having  prehensible  members,  instruments  for 
grasping  and  holding  on  both  upper  and  lower  extremi- 
ties.    They  live  in  trees  and  find  their  food  in   them ; 
they  can  hang  by  one  fore  or  hind  leg,  employing  the  re- 
maining number  in  gathering  fruit  or  in  other  offices.' 
The    perfection   of  the    formation  of  the  human    hand, 
characterises  man.     He  is  the  only  two  handed  animal. 

4.  Speech.     Several  animals  may   be  taught   to  pro- 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED.  455 

nounce  words  and  even  sentences.  But  their  mimicry 
of  human  sound  cannot  be  called  speech.  They  may  ar- 
ticulate, but  they  are  incapable  of  forming  ideas  and  com- 
municating them  by  language.  Man  alone  possesses  this 
noble  faculty,  corresponding  to  his  elevated,  physical, 
moral  and  intellectual  powers.  No  race  of  savages  was 
ever  yet  discovered  who  had  not  a  language  framed  for 
enlarging  and  communicating  ideas.  And  thus  is  man 
distinguished  from  the  brute. 

5.  Capability  of  inhabiting  all  climates.     Man  is  the 
only  animal  which  can  live  and  multiply  in  every  coun- 
try,  upon  the  surface  of  the  globe.     Some  animals  are 
confined  to  the  polar  ice ;  others  to  the  temperate  re- 
gions ;  others  can   only  live   beneath  the  blazing  rays  of 
the  torrid   zone.     Man  scales  the  high    mountain,  and 
spreads  his  tent  upon  the  desert,  and  erects  his  dwelling 
in  the  deep  valley.     He   is  healthy  and  vigorous  under 
the   burning  line,  and  braves  the  wintry  tempest  of  the 
arctic  circle.     All  countries  and  all  parts  of  the  globe, 
afford  a  dwelling-place  for  man.     This  power  is  pcssess- 
ed  by  no  other  animal. 

6.  Man  is  omnivorous.     As  man   is  capable  of  endur- 
ing the  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  in  all  climates,  so  can 
he  in  all  countries  find   food,  capable  of  affording  him 
nourishment  and  support.     The  brute  creation  are  very 
much  limited  in   the  sources  from  which  they  can  derive 
nourishment.     To  man  there  is  hardly  any  limit.     The 
herbs  of  the  field,  and  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  the  fishes 
of  the  sea,  and  the   beasts  of  the  earth,  alike  contribute 
to  the  strength  and  perfection  of  Jiis  corporeal  powers. 
Among   the  eternal   snows  of  the  north,  man  lives  upon 
animal  food  alone  ;  upon  the  luxuriant  plains  of  India,  the 
human  frame  is  supported  by  vegetable  aliment. 

7.  Intellectual  Powers.     The  Creator    has  given    all 
animals  certain  instincts  by  which  their  lives  are  pre- 
served.    And  as  there  is  a  vast  difference  in  the  physical 
organization  of  these  animals,  so  is  there  a  vast  differ- 
ence in  the  perfection  of  their  instincts.     It  is  difficult 
to  define  the  difference  between  instinct  and  reason,  but 
when  we  look  at  the  effects,  the  difference  is  very  mani- 
fest.    '  The  most  stupid  man  is  able  to  manage  the  most 


456  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

alert  and  sagacious  animal ;  he  governs  it  and  makes  it 
subservient  to  his  purposes.  This  he  effects  not  so  much 
by  bodily  strength  or  address,  as  by  the  superiority  of  his 
intellectual  nature.  He  compels  the  animal  to  obey  him 
by  his  power  of  projecting  and  acting  in  a  systematic 
.  manner.  The  strongest  and  most  sagacious  animals 
have  not  the  capacity  of  commanding  the  inferior  tribes, 
or  of  reducing  them  to  a  state  of  servitude.  The  strong- 
*  er  indeed  devour  the  weaker  ;  but  this  action  implies  an 
urgent  necessity  only,  and  a  voracious  appetite  ;  qualities 
very  different  from  that  which  produces  a  train  of  actions 
all  directed  to  one  common  design.  If  animals  be  en- 
dowed with  this  faculty,  why  do  not  some  of  these  as- 
sume the  reins  of  government  over  others,  and  force  them 
to  furnish  their  food,  to  watch  for  them,  and  to  relieve 
the  sick  or  wounded  ?  But  among  animals  there  is  no 
mark  of  subordination,  nor  indication  that  any  one  is 
able  to  recognise  or  feel  a  superiority  in  his  nature  above 
that  of  other  species.  We  should,  therefore,  conclude 
that  all  animals  are  in  this  respect  of  the  same  nature, 
and  that  the  nature  of  man  is  not  only  far  superior,  but 
likewise  of  a  very  different  kind  from  that  of  the  brute. 

Such  are  some  of  the  more  prominent  characteristics 
peculiar  to  man.  Others  might  be  adduced  from  his  ex- 
ternal and  internal  structure,  but  the  above  are  amply 
sufficient  to  induce  us  to  assign  to  him  a  specific  dis- 
tinction. 

II. THE      PECULIARITIES      OF     THE      SEVERAL      NATIONS 

AND    TRIBES     OF    MEN. 

As'we  take  a  general  survey  of  the  human  species,  we 
are  struck  with  astonishment,  at  the  vast  difference 
which  appears  in  the  physical  constitution,  and  moral 
condition  of  various  nations.  In  color,  in  height,  in 
bodily  formation  there  is  a  great  dissimilarity.  The  Pa- 
tagonian  and  the  Caffire  are  seldom  less  than  six  feet  tall, 
and  not  unfrequently  they  rise  to  nearly  seven  feet. 
There  are  other  nations  where  you  seldom  find  an  indi- 
vidual exceeding  five  feet  in  height.  The  inhabitants  of 
Lapland,  and  the  Esquimaux  are  said  to  be  real  dwarfs, 


MAN,  PHYSICALLY  CONSIDERED.         457 

their  stature  being  commonly  only  four  feet.  '  Observe 
the  delicate  skin  and  the  exquisite  rose  and  lily,  that 
beautify  the  face  of  the  Georgian  or  Circassian,  contrast 
them  with  the  coarse  skin,  and  greasy  blackness  of  the 
Hottentot,  and  imagination  is  lost  in  the  discrepancy. 
Take  the  nicely  turned  and  globular  form  of  the  Georgian 
head,  or  the  elegant  and  unangular  oval  of  the  Georgian 
face  ;  compare  the  former  with  the  flat  skull  of  the  Carib, 
and  the  other  with  the  flat  visage  of  the  Mogul  Tartar  j 
and  it  must  at  first  sight  be  difficult  to  conceive  that  each 
of  these  could  have  proceeded  from  one  common  scource.' 
The  diversities  of  moral  and  intellectual  condition  are 
perhaps  still  greater.  Look  at  the  accomplished  scholar 
of  enlightened  lands  —  the  eloquent  orator  who  draws 
down  the  thundering  applause  of  intelligent  delight;  and 
compare  him  with  the  naked  savage  dozing  in  the  filth 
of  his  smoky  cabin.  Look  at  the  Christian  bowing  at 
the  shrine  of  Jehovah,  Jiving  a  life  of  prayer  and  faith, 
and  animated  with  the  hopes  of  immortality ;  and  then 
look  at  the  fierce  and  loathsome  cannibal,  tearing  with 
bloody  teeth,  the  quivering  limbs  of  his  human  victim. 
How  vast  the  difference  ! 

In  consequence  of  this  great  diversity  in  the  condi- 
tion and  appearance  of  our  race,  it  has  been  found  con- 
renient  to  classify  the  human  form.  A  convenient  clas- 
sification is  presented  by  the  five  grand  sections  into 
which  the  globe  is  divided  by  geographers.  These  five 
classes  have  received  different  names. 

Geographical  BlumenbacJi  s*  Ginelin's 

Division.  Division.  Division. 

1.  European  Race.  Caucasian.  White  Man. 

2.  Asiatic  Race.  Mongolian.  Brown  Man. 

3.  American  Race.  American.  Red  Man. 

4.  African  Race.  Ethiopian.  Black  Man. 

5.  Australian  Race.  Malay.  Tawny  Man. 

*  Blumenbach  is  a  German  naturalist  of  very  great  celebrity.  For 
the  last  fiftyfive  years  he  has  been  lecturing  at  Gottingen  upon  the 
subjects  of  natural  history,  physiology,  osteology,  comparative  anato- 
my and  pathology.  He  is  justly  esteemed  one  of  the  brightest  on- 
naments  of  the  far  famed  university  at  that  place.  All  his  \vork3 
bear  the  impress  of  genius,  and  perhaps  no  man  has  contributed 
more  richly  to  the  advancement  of  those  sciences  upon  which  he  has 


458  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

These  divisions  embrace  precisely  the  same  class  — 
the  names  only  are  different.  I  shall  adopt  the  nomencla- 
ture of  Blumenbach,  as  that  is  the  most  common,  and 
generally  the  most  highly  esteemed. 

1.  Caucasian.     This   is  the  most   elegant   variety  of 
the   human  form.     The    characters  of  this    race  are  '  a 
white  skin,  either  with  a  fair   rosy  tint  or  inclining  to 
brown  ;  red  cheeks  ;  hair  black,  or  of  the  various  lighter 
colors,  copious,  soft,  and  generally  more  or  less  curled, 
or  waving.     The  head   globular,   the   face  straight  and 
oval,  with  the  features  moderately  distinct;  the  forehead 
slightly  flattened;  the  nose  narrow  and  slightly  aquiline; 
the  cheek   bones  unprominent ;    the  mouth    small ;  the 
lips  a  little  turned   out,  especially  the   under  one ;  the 
chin  full    and  rounded  ;  the  eyes  variable,    but  for  the 
must  part  blue.'     The  name  of  this   variety  is  derived 
from  Mount  Caucasus,  which  is  supposed  to  have  been 
the  original   abode  of  this  class.     Under  this  class  all 
the  Europeans,  except  the  Laplanders  are  included,  the 
inhabitants  of  western  Asia,  and  all  the  the  inhabitants 
of  America,  who  have  descended  from  European  ances- 
tors.    In  this  variety,  there  are  very  various  and  strong- 
lyr'marked  modifications.     They  are   by  no  means  alike 
in' physical  or  moral   traits.     There  is  merely  a  general 
resemblance   sufficiently   marked  to   admit  of  classifica- 
tion.    Blumenbach   supposes  that  the  primitive  form  of 
the  human   race   was  that  which   belongs  to  the  Cauca- 
sian variety.     With  this  variety  we  find  the  most  moral 
and  intellectual  cultivation  ;  they  compose  the  enlighten- 
ed nations  of  the  earth,  and  though  individuals  of  other 
classes  have  risen   to  moral  and   intellectual  eminence, 
have  shed  lustre  on  art  and  science,  yet  this  class  is  now 
very  decidedly  in  the  advance  of  all  the  rest. 

2.  Mongolian.       This  variety   is   characterised    by  a 
yellowish  brown   or  olive   complexion,   with    black  eyes, 
and   hair    black,   straight,  coarse,    and   thin.     The  red 
tint  is  never  seen  in    the  cheek.     The  head  instead  of 
being  globular  like  the  Caucasian  is  nearly  square.    The 

so  ably  lectured.  In  1826  he  was  lecturing  with  unabated  industry. 
I  am  not  certain  whether  he  is  now  living  or  not.  If  he  is,  he  is  now 
about  eighty  years  of  age. 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED.  459 

forehead  is  low,  and  the  face  broad  and  flat,  with  fea- 
tures nearly  running  together ;  the  cheek  bones  wide 
and  projecting ;  the  chin  prominent  with  large  ears  and 
thick  lips.  In  general  the  stature  of  this  race  is  infe- 
rior to  that  of  the  Caucasian.  This  class  includes  the 
tribes  of  central  and  northern  Asia ;  the  Laplanders 
and  the  tribes  of  Esquimaux  in  the  northern  part  of 
America. 

3.  The  American.     This  variety  includes  all  the  abo- 
riginal inhabitants  of  the  American  continent  excepting 
the  Esquimaux.     This  class  is   characterised  by  a  dark 
orange,  or  copper  colored  skin ;  the  hair  is   black,  thick 
and  coarse  ;  the   cheek    bones  high  and  expanded ;  the 
eye  deeply  seated,  the  forehead  low,  and  the  upper  part 
of  the    face  broad;   the   general  expression   of  counte- 
nance and    the  form  of  the  head   much  resembles  the 
Mongolian    tribes.     '  In  the  natives  of  Nootka   Sound,' 
says  Cook,  '  the  visage  of  most  is  round  and  full,  and 
sometimes   also   broad,    with    high    prominent    cheeks ; 
and  above  these  the   face  is  frequently  much  depressed, 
or  seems  fallen  in  quite  across  between  the  temples  ;  the 
nose  also   flattening  at  its  base,  with  pretty  wide  nostrils 
and  a  rounded  point.'     This  variety  appears  to  be  com- 
posed of  several  classes  very  considerably  differing  from 
each  other.     With  some  the  complexion  is  almost  white, 
with  others  almost  black.     It  has  by  some  been  asserted 
that  these   tribes    have  no   beard,   but  this   is   incorrect. 
They  all  have  beards,  but  it-  is  weak,  and  many  of  them 
pluck  it  out  by  the  roots.  ,4 

4.  Ethiopian.     The  characteristics  of  this  variety  are 
very  distinctly  defined.     They  are,  hair  black  and  mool- 
ly  ;  head  long  and  narrow  ;  projecting  cheek  bones  ;  eyes 
prominent ;   the   nose  broad,   thick,  flat  and  confounded 
with  the  upper  jaw;  the  front   tenth  obliquely    placed; 
the  lips  very  thick ;  the  chin  recedes,  and  the  knees  in 
many  instances  turn  in.     This  variety   is   found  all  over 
western  and  southern    Africa  ;  upon  the   coast  of  Mada- 
gascar and    New    Holland,    and    in  the    islands    of  Van 
Diemens  land,  New  Caledonia  and  New  Guinea.    Indeed 
negro  tribes  have   been   fouud    in  all  the   regions  of  the 
torrid  zone  except  America.     There  are  however  diver- 


460  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

sities  in  this  class.  The  real  negro  has  a  complexion  of 
jet,  and  crisped  hair  ;  the  Caffre  has  a  copper  complex- 
ion, and  long  woolly  hair  ;  the  natives  of  Van  Diemens 
land,  a  color  of  soot  with  frizzled  hair.  The  Hotten- 
tots also,  who  are  included  in  this  class,  resemble  the  Ma- 
lay variety,  in  the  shape  of  their  heads,  and  the  Mongo- 
lians in  their  complexions  and  thin  beards;  but  their 
woolly  hair  gives  them  a  place  in  the  Ethiopian  class. 

5.  The  Malay.  The  characteristics  of  this  variety  are 
very  indefinite  and  uncertain.  Their  color  varies  from 
a  very  light  brown,  almost  to  a  black ;  the  hair  is  black, 
very  abundant,  short  and  curled  ;  the  head  narrow,  with 
a  prominent  forehead ;  the  mouth  large ;  nose  thick  and 
flattened.  Under  this  variety  are  included  races  of  men 
very  different  indeed,  but  too  imperfectly  known  at  pre- 
sent to  admit  of  a  satisfactory  arrangement.  The  inhabi- 
tants of  New  South  Wales,  and  of  the  numerous  clusters 
of  islands  in  its  vicinity,  and  also  of  the  unnumbered 
islands  scattered  through  the  South  Sea,  belong  to  this 
division. 

It  will  at  once  be  perceived  that  this  classification  is 
exceedingly  imperfect.  You  will  find  individuals  in  each 
of  these  classes  who  might  with  perfect  propriety  be  in 
any  of  the  other.  All  you  can  say  is  that  there  is  a  gen- 
eral resemblance.  If  a  person  should  endeavor  to  di- 
vide the  inhabitants  of  any  town  into  two  classes,  placing 
all  the  light  complexioned  in  one  class  and  the  dark 
complexioned  in  the  other,  it  is  evident  that  there  would 
be  many  persons,  whom  it  would  be  difficult  to  know  to 
which  class  to  assign.  The  two  classes  run  into  each 
other ;  the  difference  is  not  broadly  marked.  And  thus 
it  is  in  these  five  classes  into  which  the  whole  human 
family  is  for  convenience'  sake  arranged.  There  are  no 
natural  and  clearly  defined  limits.  There  is  a  mingling 
of  shades  ;  an  imperceptible  gradation.  Some  natural- 
ists have  thought  it  necessary  to  make  many  more  divis- 
ions than  the  five  above  enumerated,  while  others  have 
thought  that  three  classes  would  afford  sufficient  discrimi- 
nation ;  and  therefore  have  contracted  the  varieties  into 
three  —  the  European,  the  Asiatic,  and  the  African. 

Such  is  the  general  classification  of  the  human  race. 


MAN,  PHYSICALLY  CONSIDERED.  461 

It  will  be  perceived  that  the  varieties  of  form,  color, 
stature,  &.c,  are  by  no  means  small.  The  dwarfish  Es- 
quimaux, and  the  gigantic  Patagonian,  the  jet  black  Af- 
rican and  the  lair  faced  European,  seem  widely  separa- 
ted from  each  other.  But  there  are  intervening  links  ; 
these  widely  different  hues  mingle  and  blend.  Many 
exaggerated  stories  have  been  told  of  the  human  stature 
reaching  ten  and  even  eighteen  feet.  There  is  a  very 
common  belief  that  the  human  stature  in  remote  ages, 
was  greater  than  at  the  present  time,  and  this  belief 
ha?  been  grounded  upon  accounts  which  have  been  given 
of  gigantic  bones  dug  up.  We  are  not  warranted,  how- 
ever, in  believing  in  the  general  degeneracy  of  the  hu- 
man frame.  No  well  authenticated  example  can  be  ad- 
duced of  man's  stature  exceeding  eight  or  nine  feet. 
We  must  however  except  Goliath  of  Gath.  He  was  in 
height  six  cubits  and  a  span.  The  scripture  cubit  is  said 
to  have  been  twentyone  inches.  This  makes  this  vaunt- 
ing Philistine  to  have  had  the  enormous  stature  of  eleven 
feet  and  four  inches.  This  computation  cannot  however 
be  relied  upon  as  perfectly  accurate,  for  we  cannot  as- 
certain the  precise  measurement  of  the  scripture  cubit. 
It  is  however  undoubtedly  very  near  the  truth.  Habicut, 
a  celebrated  anatomist,  describes  some  huge  bones  found 
in  a  sepulchre,  near  the  ruins  of  a  castle,  which  he  says 
composed  a  skeleton  twentyfive  feet  and  a  half  high  and 
ten  feet  broad  at  the  shoulders.  This  statement  gave 
rise  to  along  and  warm  controversy,  at  the  close  of  which 
it  remained  undecided  whether  these  bones  were  the  re- 
mains of  a  man,  or  an  elephant.  The  latter  is  altogeth- 
er the  most  probable.  There  are,  however,  several  well 
authenticated  accounts  of  very  great  stature. 

One  of  the  king  of  Prussia's  guards  measured 
eight  feet  and  a  half.  J.  H.  Reichardt  was  eight  feet, 
and  three  inches.  There  is  now  in  England,  in  one  of 
the  college  museums,  the  skeleton  of  an  individual  who 
was  eight  feet  and  four  inches.  Several  Irishmen  have 
also  been  exhibited  in  London  rising  of  eight  feet.  Gen- 
erally these  giants  have  not  possessed  symmetry  of  form, 
or  strength  proportioned  to  their  size.  And  it  is  a  very 
VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xix.  41 


462  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

common  observation  that  large  men  are  seldom  noted 
for  great  intellectual  powers. 

There  are  other  individuals  who  fall  as  far  short  of  the 
ordinary  stature,  as  those  above  alluded  to  exceed  it. 
There  are  not  only  individuals  dwarfs,  but  large  tribes 
exceedingly  diminutive  in  size.  The  Bojisman  tribe  in 
south  Africa,  are  remarkably  short.  About  four  feet  six 
inches  is  said  to  be  the  average  size  of  the  men,  and 
four  feet  that  of  the  women.  Barrow  says  he  saw  one 
woman  measuring  but  three  feet  and  nine  inches,  who 
had  several  children.  How  strong  the  contrast  between 
such  a  tribe  as  this,  and  the  Patagonians,  whose  average 
height  is  said  to  be  from  six  feet  and  a  half  to  seven  feet. 

Bufibri  and  many  learned  naturalists  have  advanced  the 
idea  that  the  soil  and  climate  of  America  is  unfavorable 
to  the  development  of  the  bodily  powers.  They  think 
that  men  and  brutes  have  dwindled  here,  and  will  con- 
tinue to  dwindle.  They  describe  the  aboriginal  inhabi- 
tants of  this  country  as  necessarily  dwarfish,  weak  and 
puny.  And  some  of  the  literary  nobility  of  the  old 
world,  have  followed  out  this  idea  to  a  still  more  discour- 
aging results.  They  say  that  the  human  mind  here  can- 
not expand  —  that  there  are  some  causes  operating  in  this 
continent  to  cramp  genius,  and  enervate  the  intellectual 
powers.  Lawrence  scouts  at  this  idea,  and  yet  goes  on 
to  say,  '  to  expect  that  the  native  Americans  or  Afri- 
cans can  be  raised  by  any  culture,  to  an  equal  height 
in  moral  sentiments  and  intellectual  energy  with  Eu- 
ropeans, appears  to  me  quite  as  unreasonable,  as  it 
would  be  to  hope  that  the  bull  dog  may  equal  the  grey- 
hound in  speed ;  that  the  latter  may  be  taught  to  hunt 
by  scent  like  the  hound;  or  that  the  mastiff  may  rival 
in  talents  and  acquirements,  the  sagacious  and  docile 
poodle.'  In  direct  opposition  to  this  statement  are  ar- 
ranged many  facts  which  prove  that  the  benighted  sav- 
age, when  under  circumstances  favorable  for  the  devel- 
opment of  his  intellectual  powers,  may  rise  to  virtue 
and  to  eminence.  Our  own  ancestors  were  as  degrad- 
ed as  any  tribe  of  savages  now  howling  in  the  wilder- 
ness. They  are  described  as  naked  barbarians,  fierce 
and  cruel,  with  bodies  smeared  with  paint  and  living  by 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED.  463 

violence.  Says  Gibbon,  '  when  they  hunted  the  woods 
for  prey,  it  is  said  they  attacked  the  shepherd  rather 
than  his  flock ;  and  that  they  curiously  selected  the 
most  delicate  and  brawny  parts  both  of  males  and 
females,  which  they  prepared  for  their  horrid  repast. 
If  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  commercial  and  literary 
town  of  Glasgow,  a  race  of  cannibals  has  really  exist- 
ed, we  may  contemplate  in  Scottish  history  the  opposite 
extremes  of  savage  and  civilized  life.  Such  reflections 
tend  to  enlarge  the  circle  of  our  ideas  ;  and  to  encour- 
age the  pleasing  hope  that  New  Zealand  may  produce 
in  some  future  age,  the  Hume  of  the  southern  hemis- 
phere.' What  is  it  that  has  raised  us  to  such  compar- 
ative refinement  and  intelligence  ?  It  is  the  operation 
of  the  same  causes  which  are  now  sweeping  the  clouds 
from  benighted  Africa,  and  demolishing  the  bloody  tesi- 
ples  of  India  and  pouring  the  light  of  truth  and  love 
upon  the  long  desolated  shores  of  Hawaii.  It  is  the 
blessed  religion  of  Jesus  Christ,  proclaiming  love  to  God 
and  love  to  man. 

III. THE     CAUSES    OF    THE     VARIETIES     OF    THE     HUMAN 

SPECIF.S. 

The  question  has. been  asked  by  many  who  have  ob- 
served the  great  diversity  in  the  human  family,  Are 
these  all  brethren  1  have  they  descended  from  one  stock  ? 
or  must  we  trace  them  to  more  than  one  ?  and  if  so, 
how  many  Adams  must  we  admit?  Upon  this  subject 
we  have  no  history  but  that  given  by  Moses.  Says  Dr 
Good,  '  the  only  fair  and  explicit  interpretation  that  can 
be  given  to  the  Mosaic  history,  is  that  the  whole  hu- 
man race  has  proceeded  from  one  single  pair,  or  in  the 
words  of  another  part  of  the  sacred  writings  "God  made 
of  one  blood  all  nations  of  men,  for  to  dwell  upon  all 
the  face  of  the  earth."  The  book  of  nature  is'in  this,  as 
in  every  other  respect,  in  union  with  that  of  revelation  ; 
it  tells  us  that  one  single  pair  must  have  been  adequate 
to  all  the  purposes  on  which  some  philosophers  have 
grounded  their  objections  ;  and  it  should  be  further  ob- 
served to  them  that  thus  to  multiply  causes  without  ne- 


464  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

cessity,  is  not  more  inconsistent  with  the  operations  of 
nature,  than  with  those  of  genuine  philosophy.'  It  is  a 
little  remarkable  that  those  who  are  dissatisfied  with  the 
simple  and  natural  narration  of  the  inspired  writers 
should  have  adopted  theories  in  such  extremes  of  oppo- 
sition to  each  other.  Some  of  these  philosophers,  among 
whom  are  to  be  found  the  respectable  names  of  Linnae- 
us, Buffbn,  and  Helvetius,  respectable  certainly  as  to  sci- 
entific attainments,  think  we  can  trace  back  our  ances- 
tral line  to  the  iilthy  and  chattering  baboon.  Others, 
with  Darwin  at  their  head,  make  the  oyster  shell  our  cra- 
dle. Others  think  we  cannot  all  be -traced  back  even 
to  Adam,  but  that  at  the  commencement  of  human  exist- 
ence, many  couples  were  created  answering  to  the  di- 
versities which  we  now  see.  While  Moses,  writing  under 
the  inspiration  of  the  Almighty,  says  that  God  first  creat- 
ed Adam  and  Eve,  and  from  them  all  the  inhabitants  of 
the  world  have  descended.  How  much  more  simple  and 
philosophical  this  account,  than  the  wild  vagaries  of 
Buflbn  and  of  Darwin.  Voltaire  says,  '  no  one  but  a 
blind  man  can  doubt  that  the  whites,  the  negroes,  the 
Albini,  the  Hottentots,  the  Laplanders,  the  Chinese,  and 
the  Americans  compose  races  entirely  distinct.'  Why 
these  nations  alone  ?  There  are  striking  marks  of  differ- 
ence between  innumerable  other  tribes,  and  these  all  run 
into  ca".h  other  by  imperceptible  gradation.  If  we  adopt 
the  idea  that  there  must  have  been  originally  more  than 
one  couple,  to  account  for  the  present  variety  of  the  hu- 
man species,  how  many  distinct  fountains  must  we  sup- 
pose to  have  been,  from  whence  the  streams  of  nations 
have  flowed  ?  It  is  as  difficult  to  account  for  the  present 
variety,  if  we  suppose  fifty  or  a  hundred,  as  if  we  sup- 
pose one.  '  In  describing  the  varieties,  it  is  necessary  to 
hx  on  the  most  strongly  marked  tints,  between  which 
there  is  every  intermediate  shade  of  color.  The  oppo- 
site extremes  run  into  each  other  by  the  nicest  and  most 
delicate  gradations  ;  and  it  is  the  same  in  every  other 
particular  in  which  the  various  tribes  of  the  human  spe- 
cies differ.  This  forms  no  slight  objection  to  the  hy- 
pothesis of  distinct  species ;  for  on  that  supposition  we 
cannot  define  their  number,  nor  draw  out  the  boundaries 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED.  465 

that  divide  them.  Neither  does  the  color,  which  belongs 
to  any  particular  race,  prevail  so  universally  in  all  the 
individuals  of  that  race,  as  to  constitute  an  invariable 
character,  as  we  should  expect  if  it  rose  from  a  cause  so 
uniform  as  aa  original  specific  difference.  Its  varieties 
on  the  contrary,  point  out  the  action  of  other  circum- 
stances.' 

.It  is  impossible  fully  to  explain  the  causes  of  the  great 
diversity  now  to  be  seen.  Climate,  soil,  manners  and 
customs  have  a  great  influence,  but  we  cannot  see  pre- 
cisely how  they  operate  in  producing  given  effects. 
There  is  however  precisely  the  same  difficulty  in  account- 
ing for  the  different  features  of  members  of  the  same 
family,  that  there  is  in  accounting  for  the  varieties  of  the 
human  race.  Why  do  the  same  parents  have  one  child 
with  a  light  complexion,  and  light  hair;  and  another  with 
a  dark  complexion,  and  dark  hair]  No  one  can  tell. 
We  know  that  children  of  different  appearance  are  born 
of  the  same  parents,  —  why  then  may  not  the  Caucasian, 
the  Ethiopian,  the  Mongolian,  the  American,  and  the 
Malay  be  traced  back  to  the  same  common  parents,  Ad- 
am and  Eve  ?  Most  evidently  they  may.  True  we  can- 
not account  in  full  for  the  causes  of  this  difference ;  nei- 
ther is  it  to  be  expected,  for  we  cannot  account  for  the 
causes  of  the  difference  in  the  children  who  encircle  the 
same  tire-side. 

Various  modes  have  been  suggested  by  which  these 
rarieties  might  have  been  naturally  produced.  It  is  said 
that  '  the  heat  of  the  climate  is  the  chief  cause  of  black- 
ness among  the  human  species.  When  this  heat  is  ex- 
cessive, as  in  Senegal  and  Guinea,  the  men  are  perfect- 
ly black;  when  it  is  a  little  less  violent  the  blackness  is 
not  so  deep ;  when  it  becomes  somewhat  temperate,  as 
in  Barbary,  Mongolia,  Arabia,  &c,  mankind  are  only 
brown  ;  and  lastly  when  it  is  altogether  temperate,  as  in 
Europe  and  Asia,  men  are  white.  Some  varieties,  in- 
deed, are  produced  by  the  mode  of  living.  All  the  Tar- 
tars for  example,  are  tawny ;  while  the  Europeans  who 
live  under  the  same  latitude  are  white.  This  difference 
may  safely  be  ascribed  to  the  Tartars  being  always  ex- 
posed to  the  air  ;  to  their  having  no  cities  or  fixed  habi- 

VOL.  i.  — NO.  xix.         41* 


466  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

tations ;  to  their  sleeping  constantly  on  the  ground,  and 
to  their  rough  and  savage  manner  of  living.  These  cir- 
cumstances are  sufficient  to  render  the  Tartars  more 
swarthy  than  the  Europeans,  who  want  nothing  to  make 
their  life  easy  and  comfortable.  Why  are  the  Chinese 
fairer  than  the  Tartars,  though  they  resemble  them  in 
every  feature  ?  because  they  live  in  towns  and  practice 
every  art,  to  guard  themselves  against  the  injuries  of  the 
weather ;  while  the  Tartars  are  perpetually  exposed  to 
the  action  of  the  sun  and  air.  Climate  may  be  regard- 
ed as  the  chief  cause  of  the  different  colors  of  men, 
but  food,  though  it  has  less  influence  than  climate, 
greatly  affects  the  form  of  our  bodies.  Coarse,  unwhole- 
some and  ill-prepared  food  makes  the  human  species  de- 
generate. All  those  people  who  live  miserably  are  ugly 
and  ill  made.  Even  in  France  the  country  people  are 
not  so  beautiful,  as  those  who  live  in  towns ;  and  I  have 
often  remarked  in  those  villages,  where  the  people  are 
richer  and  better  fed  than  in  others,  the  men  are  like- 
wise more  handsome  and  have  better  countenances. 
The  air  and  the  soil  have  great  influence  on  the  figures 
of  men,  beasts  and  plants.  Upon  the  whole,  every  cir- 
cumstance concurs  in  proving  that  mankind  are  not 
composed  of  species  essentially  different  from  each  other; 
that  on  the  contrary,  there  was  originally  but  one  spe- 
cies, which  after  multiplying  and  spreading  over  the  whole 
surface  of  the  earth,  has  undergone  various  changes  by 
the  influence  of  the  climate,  food,  mode  of  living,  opi- 
demic  diseases,  and  mixtures  of  dissimilar  individuals  ; 
that  at  first  these  changes  were  not  conspicuous,  and 
produced  only  individual  varieties ;  that  these  varieties 
became  afterwards  more  specific:,  because  they  were  ren- 
dered more  general,  more  strongly  marked  and  more 
permanent,  by  the  continual  action  of  the  same  cause; 
that  they  are  transmitted  from  generation  to  generation, 
as  deformities  or  diseases  pass  from  parents  to  children  ; 
and  that  lastly,  as  they  were  originally  produced  by  a 
train  of  external  and  accidental  caus  :s,  and  have  only 
been  perpetuated  by  time,  and  the  constant  operation  of 
these  causes,  it  is  probable  that  they  will  gradually  dis- 
appear, or  at  least  that  they  will  differ  from  what  they 


MAN,    PHYSICALLV    CONSIDERED.  467 

are  at  present,  if  the  causes  which  produce  them  should 
cease,  or  if  their  operation  should  be  varied  by  other  cir- 
cumstances and  combinations. 

'  The  state  of  society  is  said  to  have  great  effect  on 
the  formation  and  color  of  the  body.  The  nakedness  of 
the  savage,  the  filthy  grease  and  paint  with  which  he 
smears  his  body ;  his  smoky  hut,  scanty  diet,  want  of 
cleanliness,  and  the  undrained  and  uncleared  country 
which  he  inhabits  not  only  darken  his  skin  but  render  it 
impossible,  that  it  ever  should  be  fair.  On  the  other 
hand  the  conveniences  of  clothing  and  lodging;  the  plen- 
ty and  healthful  quality  of  food;  a  country  drained  and 
cultivated,  and  treed  from  noxious  effluvia;  improved 
ideas  of  beauty ;  constant  study  of  elegance,  and  the  in- 
finite arts  for  attaining  it,  even  in  personal  figure  and  ap- 
pearance, give  cultivated  an  immense  advantage  over 
savage  society,  in  its  attempts  to  counteract  the  influence 
of  climate,  and  to  beautify  the  human  form.' 

'  In  tracing  the  globe,'  says  Smith,  '  from  the  pole  to 
the  equator,  we  observe  a  gradation  in  the  complexion, 
nearly  in  proportion  to  the  latitude  of  the  country.  Im- 
mediately below  the  arctic  circle,  a  high  and  sanguine 
color  prevails;  from  this  you  descend  to  a  mixture  of  red 
and  white ;  afterwards  succeed  the  brown  and  the  olive, 
the  tawny,  and  at  length  the  black,  as  you  proceed  to  the 
line.  The  same  distance  from  the  sun,  however,  does 
not  in  every  region,  indicate  the  same  temperature  of 
climate.  Some  secondary  causes  must  be  taken  into  con- 
sideration as  correcting  and  limiting  its  influence.  The 
elevation  of  the  land,  its  vicinity  to  the  sea,  the  nature 
of  the  soil,  the  state  of  cultivation,  the  course  of  winds, 
and  imny  other  circumstances,  enter  into  this  view.  Ele- 
vated and  mountainous  countries  are  cool,  in  proportion 
to  their  altitude  above  the  level  of  the  sea.' 

It  is  stated  by  Lawrence,  and  is  a  well  known  fact, 
that  '  the  color  of  the  Europeans  nearly  foliows  the  geo- 
graphical position  of  countries.  This  part  of  the  world 
is  occupied  almost  entirely  by  a  white  race,  of  which  the 
individuals  arc  fairer  in  cold  latitudes,  and  more  swarthy 
and  sunburnt  in  warm  ones.  Thus  the  French  may  be 
darker  than  the  English,  the  Spaniards  than  the  French, 


468  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

and  the  Moors  than  the  Spaniards.  In  the  same  way, 
where  different  parts  of  the  country  differ  much  in  lati- 
tude and  in  temperature,  the  inhabitants  may  be  browner 
in  the  south,  than  in  the  north  ;  thus  the  women  of  Gre- 
nada are  said  to  be  more  swarthy  than  those  of  Biscay, 
and  the  southern  than  the  northern  Chinese.  For  a  similar 
reason  the  same  race  may  vary  slightly  in  color,  in  differ- 
ent countries.  The  Jews,  for  example,  are  fair  in  Britain 
and  Germany,  browner  in  France  and  Turkey,  swarthy 
in  Portugal  and  Spain,  olive  in  Syria  and  Chaldea.  An 
English  sailor  who  had  been  for  some  years  in  Nukahei- 
wah,  one  of  the  Marquesas  islands,  had  been  so  chang- 
ed in  color,  that  he  was  scarcely  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  natives.' 

'  It  is  in  reality,'  says  Good,  '  from  long  and  deeply 
rooted  habit  alone  that  the  black,  red,  and  olive  color  of 
the  Ethiopian,  American  and  Moguls,  is  continued  in 
the  future  lineage  of  so  many  generations,  after  their  re- 
moval into  other  parts  of  the  world,  and  that  nothing  will 
in  general  restore  the  skin  (o  its  original  fairness,  but 
a  long  succession  of  intermixtures  with  the  European 
variety.  It  is  a  singular  circumstance  that  the  black 
color  appears  to  form  a  less  permanent  habit,  than  the 
red  or  olive ;  for  the  children  of  olive  and  copper  colored 
parents,  exhibit  the  parental  hue  from  the  moment  of 
birth,  but  in  those  of  blacks  it  is  usually  six,  eight  or  ten 
months  before  the  black  pigment  is  fully  secreted.  We 
also  sometimes  find  this  not  secreted  at  all,  whence  the 
anomaly  of  white  negroes ;  and  sometimes  only  in  inter- 
rupted lines,  or  patches,  whence  the  anomaly  of  spotted 
negroes  ;  and  we  have  even  a  few  rare  cases  of  negroes 
in  America  who  in  consequence  of  very  severe  illness 
have  had  the  whole  of  the  black  pigment,  absorbed  and 
carried  off,  and  a  white  pigment  diffused  in  its  stead. 
In  other  words,  we  have  instances  of  a  black  man  being 
suddenly  bleached  into  a  white  man.  These  instances 
are  indeed  of  rare  occurrence  ;  but  they  are  sufficient 
to  shew  the  absurdity  of  the  argument  for  a  plurality  of 
human  stocks  or  species,  for  a  mere  difference  in  the 
color  of  the  skin;  an  argument  thus  proved  to  be  alto- 
gether superficial  and  which  we  may  gravely  assert  to  be 
not  more  than  skiti  deep. 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED.  469 

'  Though  this  reasoning  will  not  fully  explain  all  the  va- 
rieties of  human  appearance,  yet  it  is  undoubtedly  in  gen- 
eral is  correct.  These  causes  are  almost  infinitely  va- 
ried and  combined,  and  consequently  we  find  in  every 
nation,  village,  and  even  family,  striking  diversities  of 
complexion,  form,  and  stature.' 

Although,  however,  it  may  be  admitted  that  all  the 
races  of  men  are  of  one  family,  it  does  not  by  any  means 
follow  that  they  are  all  intellectually  equal.  Many  per- 
sons seeing,  as  they  suppose,  sufficient  evidence  of  the 
inferiority  in  intellectual  or  physical  power,  of  some  of 
the  races  of  men,  have  concluded  that  this  is  in  itself  a 
sufficient  argument  to  disprove  identity  of  origin.  But  a 
moment's  reflection  will  show  us  that  we  are  not  compel- 
led to  maintain  the  intellectual  equality  of  the  different 
portions  of  the  human  family,  simply  because  we  hold 
that  they  descended  from  one  pair.  In  the  course  of 
ages,  the  various  collateral  branches  of  the  same  stock 
may  diverge  from  each  other  untifr  in  many  traits 
both  physical  and  intellectual,  they  become  widely  dif- 
ferent, and  the  peculiarities  thus  acquired  become  per- 
manent,—  at  least  to  such  a  degree  as  to  require  an 
equally  long  series  of  causes  and  effects  to  restore  the 
original  character. 

It  is  so  with  other  animals.  The  dog,  for  instance,  is 
universally  admitted  to  form  one  species,  yet  how  great 
the  variety  of  breeds  produced  by  the  influence  of  cli- 
mate, and  other  circumstances.  One  breed  is  perma- 
nently and  unchangeably  acute  in  the  sense  of  smell, — 
another  is  noted  for  speed  of  foot.  One  is  sagacious  — 
another  strong,  —  and  a  third  ferocious.  We  say  these 
peculiarities  are  permanent  and  unchangeable  —  and  they 
are  so,  at  least  to  such  a  degree  that  it  would  require  a 
very  long  course  of  years,  and  very  special  training,  the 
results  of  which  should  accumulate  through  many  gen- 
erations, to  reverse  them. 

Now  it  may  be  so  with  men.  We  do  not  mean  to 
discuss  here  the  question  of  the  equality  of  the  negro,  or 
any  other  race  to  the  rest  of  mankind  in  intellectual 
power.  We  only  say  that  their  present  equality  does  not 
necessarily  follotc  from  their  common  origin.  The  lapse 


470  MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED. 

of  ages  has  produced  physical  peculiarities,  which  are 
now  fixed.  The  flattened  head,  —  the  thick  lip,  —  the 
diminutive,  or  the  gigantic  stature,  — the  red,  or  black, 
or  copper  colored  skin,  have  become  indelible  marks  of 
the  various  divisions  of  the  human  family.  In  the  same 
manner,  the  gayety  of  the  Frenchman,  the  gravity  of  the 
Spaniard,  the  mildness  of  the  Hindoo,  and  the  general 
intellectual  superiority,  or  inferiority  of  the  Mongolian  or 
Caucasian,  or  negro  race,  may  have  become  fixed  char- 
acteristics, which  circumstances  now  can  but  slowly 
change. 

That  there  should  be  thus,  in  the  course  of  ages,  a 
marked  and  permanent  difference  among  the  races  of 
men,  springing  originally  from  the  same  stock,  is  ren- 
dered not  improbable  from  another  circumstance,  viz. 
the  difference  which  exists  between  different  fam Hies  of 
the  same  nation.  In  this  case,  the  origin  is  confessedly 
the  same,  and  yet  how  great  a  difference  in  intellectual 
or  physical  power  is  sometimes  observed.  One  family 
will  be  distinguished  in  all  its  members  for  uncommon 
acuteness  of  intellectual  powers.  Another  will  be  noted 
for  the  reverse,  so  that  with  the  best  advantages  they  will 
scarcely  rise  above  mediocrity ;  and  these  peculiarities 
will  sometimes  remain  from  generation  to  generation, 
until  they  are  gradually  lost.  In  the  same  manner  the 
great  divisions  of  the  whole  human  family  may  come  to 
differ  in  intellectual  power,  so  that  equal  advantages  will 
not  bring  equal  rank,  and  many  generations  may  be  ne- 
cessary to  restore  the  equilibrium. 
•4,  The  question  then  of  the  intellectual  equality  of  the 
various  races  of  mankind,  —  we  mean  the  equality  in 
respect  to  the  native  powers  of  the  individuals,  as 
they  now  successively  come  upon  the  stage,  —  is  to  be 
settled  by  an  appeal  to  facts.  Do  these  various  races 
under  the  same  circumstances,  attain  to  the  same  suc- 
cessful cultivation  of  the  arts  of  life  ?  When  circum- 
stances are  favorable,  do  they  make  equal  progress  ?  — 
and  when  war,  or  pestilence,  or  famine,  or  any  other 
great  calamity,  involves  them  in  ruin,  and  throws  them 
back  to  the  state  of  nature,  do  they,  with  equal  rapidity, 
and  certainty,  recover  from  the  shock  and  rise  to  refine- 


MAN,    PHYSICALLY    CONSIDERED.  471 

ment  and  prosperity  again  ?  To  discuss  and  decide  these 
questions,  a  very  full  review  of  the  history  of  the  human 
race  would  be  necessary,  and  however  it  may  be  decid- 
ed, we  must  at  all  events  acquiesce  in  the  decision  of 
scripture,  that  '  God  has  made  of  one  blood  all  the  nations 
of  the  earth.' 


<?•  — 
AGENTS 

• 

FOIl  THE 

SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

MAINE. 

Norwich,            Thomas  P.Mnson. 

Portland,           Samuel   Caiman. 
HalloweJl,         C.  Spaa/ding. 

Middlotown,       F.dwin  Hunt. 
NEW  YORK. 

Bangur,             B.  Hoarse. 

Albany,               Little  If    Cummiii^. 

Belfast,             Jf.  P.  Hawes. 

Canandaigua,     Bemis  *    W  ird. 

Eastport,        \  *  *JJ£« 

Troy,       '             W.  S.  Parker. 
Utica,                  G.  S.  Wilson. 

Norway,           Asa,  Barton. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Rochester,          E.  Peck  Sf    Co. 
NEW  JERSEY. 
Trenton,             D.  Feiiton. 

(  Kit  French* 
Dover,            j  &  c>  Slcve]is. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Hanover,           Thomas  ,Uaj«.J. 

Philadelphia     \  ,"  •^ji"^''  nf  k'vttter, 

Concord,            Horatio  Hill  Sf   Co. 
Keene,               George  Tildin. 

MARYLAND, 

Portsmouth,      John  W.  Foster. 
VERMONT. 
Burlington,       C.  Goodrich. 
Brattleboro',     Geo.  II.  Peck. 

DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Washington,      Thompson  tfJlomans. 
Georgetown,       James  Thomas. 
VIRGINIA. 

Windsor,           Simeon  Ide. 

Fredcricksburs,  Wm.  F.  Orai;  P.  JH. 

Montpflicr,       J.  S.    Walton. 
Bellows  Falls,  James  I.  Cutler  $  Co. 
Rutland,             Wm.  Fay 

OHIO. 
Cincinnati,     |  c^D^Brfidjo^d^Co'' 

Middlebury,      Jonathan  Ilagar. 

Columbus,         ./.  J\".  Whiting.  ' 

Cantluton,         B.  Burtun  2<J. 

MISSISSIPPI.    " 

St  Albana,         L.  L.  Diieclier. 
Chester,             Charles  Winnie. 
MASSACHUSETTS. 

Natches,            F.  Beaumont. 
SOUTH  CAROLINA. 
Charleston,        F.benezer  Tliaijer. 

Salem,                W  hippie  If  Lawrence. 
Nevvburyport,  Charles   Ifhipple. 

Cherau,              Vr  JJaynard. 
NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Northampton,  S.  Butler  $  Son. 

Kalcioh,             Turner  4-   j. 

Andover,           M.  JTctemaii. 

GKORG1A. 

Amherst,           .7.  S.  &   C.  ./Mams. 

Savannah           Tlmiiuis  M.  Di\scoll. 

Worcester,        Dorr  $  Holland. 

ALABAMA 

Spiingfield,        Thomas  Dickn.ini. 
New  UeclfoiJ,  Jl.Shearman,Jr.$  Co. 

Mobile,              (Wioriie  Sf  Smith. 
LOUISIANA. 

Methuen,           J.  W.  Carlton  i(  Co. 

New  Orleans,    Jtlnrw  Carroll. 

Brookiield,        K.  #  G.  JUcrriiim. 
RHODE  ISLAND. 

MICHIGAN  TERRITORY. 

Detroit,              George  L.   11  itttuey. 

Providence,    j  C»rej/  *,^.°7tA, 

CANADA. 

Montreal,          a.  if.   Cuatii 

CONNECTICUT. 

auebec,             JVViV.«>/i  if  Cowan. 

Hartford,           1[.  if  F.  J.  Huntiugto,, 

ENGLAND. 

New  Haven,     .1.  11.  Mahby 

Ix>ndon,            Juh.ii  Mdrden. 

PUBLISHED    BY    CARTER     AND     HENDEE. 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 

BOSTON     CLASSIC     PRESS  I.     R.     BUTTS. 

*w*.  TERMS  —  24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAR  AND  FIFTY 

CENT3. 

.  —'> 

SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER    XX. 


ELECTRICITY. 


INTRODUCTORY    REMARKS. 

MANY  centuries  ago  it  was  noticed  that  a  certain  sub- 
stance called  amber  had  a  very  peculiar  property.  When 
it  was  rubbed  upon  dry  cloth  or  flannel,  it  had  the  power 
of  attracting  light  substances.  Feathers,  down,  and  par- 
ticles of  dust  would  adhere  to  it,  and  if  removed,  they 
were  drawn  forcibly  to  it  again.  The  Greeks  first  ob- 
served this  phenomenon.  The  Greek  name  for  amber 
was  E/cktron.  Hence  they  expressed  this  attractive  pow- 
er, by  the  term  Electricity,  or  rather  by  a  term  from 
which  the  English  word  electricity  has,  by  a  slight 
change  of  form,  been  derived. 

Amber  is  not  a  very  common  substance  in  our  country, 
but  the  above  experiment  may  in  substance  be  tried  by 
any  one,  with  a  peice  of  resin  or  gum  of  almost  any  kind, 
for  almost  all  resinous  substances  possess  this  power. 
Spread  upon  a  table  a  little  lint,  or  a  few  fibres  of  cot- 
ton, or  the  light  downy  part  of  a  feather ;  then  take 
a  piece  of  resin  having  a  smooth  surface,  and  after  warm- 
ing and  drying  it,  rub  it  briskly  upon  a  piece  of  woollen 
cloth  or  dry  flannel.  Upon  bringing  it,  then,  near  the 
light  substances  before  mentioned,  they  will  be  found  to 
be  attracted  towards  it,  and  will  adhere  to  it  a  long  time. 

The  reason  why  light  substances  are  used  in  this  ex- 
periment, is  not  that  they  are  more  strongly  attracted 
than  others,  but  because  they  may  more  easily  be  moved 
by  the  attraction,  and  consequently  the  effect  will  be  more 
manifest.  The  resin  will  attract  a  steel  needle  as  strong- 

VOL.  r.  —  NO.  xx.  42 


474  ELECTRICITY. 


ly  as  it  will  a  feathery  fibre  as  large  as  the  needle.  But 
this  attractive  force  will  be  sufficient  to  lift  and  to  sus- 
tain the  feather,  while  it  will  not  move  the  needle,  on  ac- 
count of  its  great  weight.  If,  however,  we  suspend  the 
needle  in  such  a  manner  that  it  can  be  easily  moved,  the 
attraction  will  be  as  manifest  as  in  the  case  of  any  sub- 
stance whatever.  This  may  be  done  by  means  of  a 
thread.  The  needle  suspended  by  it  will  swing  like  a 
pendulum,  and  if  the  resin  after  being  rubbed  is  brought 
near  it,  the  needle  will  be  found  to  move  sensibly  to- 
wards it. 

This  single  experiment  with  the  amber  stood  for  a  long 
time  alone.  It  was  not  in  these  days,  as  it  is  now,  the 
custom  to  scrutinize  with  eager  curiosity  such  phenome- 
na, and  to  trace  them  back  to  their  causes  and  con- 
nexions. In  modern  times,  however,  this  subject  has 
been  very  extensively  examined.  Many  facts  of  a  very 
interesting  character  have  been  ascertained.  Many 
other  phenomena  have  been  observed  and  traced  to  the 
same  cause  with  the  attraction  of  the  amber.  These 
facts  have  been  classified  and  arranged  ;  the  manner  in 
which  the  cause  of  them  operates  in  various  circum- 
stances, has  been  brought  to  view,  and  thus  a  most  im- 
portant and  valuable  science  has  arisen,  which  we  call 
in  memory  of  the  substance,  whose  properties  first  attract- 
ed attention  to  the  subject,  the  Science  (<f  Electricity. 

NATURE    OF    ELECTRICITY. 

The  cause  of  the  various  phenomena  hereafter  to  be 
described,  is  called  Electricity.  It  is  generally  consid- 
ered a  fluid,  which  pervades  all  bodies  in  nature.  If  it 
is  a  fluid  it  must  be  extremely  different  in  its  nature  from 
all  other  fluids.  There  is  much  difficulty  in  regard  to 
the  nature  of  three  substances,  whose  effects  are  well 
known,  Light,  Heat,  and  Electricity.  If  it  were  possi- 
ble to  describe  the  effects  of  these  agents,  —  the  phe- 
nomena caused  by  them,  without  adopting  any  theory  in 
regard  to  their  intrinsic  nature,  we  should  prefer  to  do  so. 
But  this  is  not  possible.  For  convenience  then  of  lan- 
guage we  call  electricity  a  fluid,  without  meaning  to  ex- 


ELECTRICITY.  475 


press  any  opinion  in  regard  to  its  substance.  All  that  is 
properly  known  of  it,  is  its  effects,  and  such  of  its  char- 
acteristics as  may  be  fairly  and  logically  inferred  from  its 
effects.  These  last  are  however  very  few.  The  princi- 
pal object  therefore  of  the  following  tract,  is  to  present 
in  a  systematic  form,  the  prominent  facts,  and  classes 
of  facts,  which  it  is  common  to  refer  to  this  cause.  We 
must  first  however  say  something  of  the  theory. 

A  theory  in  any  science  may  be  of  great  advantage, 
even  though  there  be  not  positive  evidence  of  its  truth. 
Sometimes  it  is  only  a  hypothesis,  adopted  simply  for  the 
purpose  of  arranging  and  systematizing  the  facts  observ- 
ed. In  such  cases  it  is  of  great  service  in  reducing  to 
order  what  would  otherwise  be  a  mass  of  inextricable 
confusion. 

Some  theory,  for  this  latter  purpose,  is  necessary  for 
the  science  of  electricity.  If  we  attempt  to  look  at  the 
facts  themselves  individually,  without  any  theory,  we  shall 
have  before  us  a  confused  and  heterogeneous  mass,  which 
it  is  almost  impossible  to  remember,  or  to  recall  when 
occasion  requires.  Consequently  theories  have  been  de- 
vised for  the  purpose  of  grouping,  and  arranging  the 
facts,  and  assisting  the  recollection  of  them. 

There  are  two  prominent  theories  which  have  been 
employed  for  this  purpose  in  electricity.  The  one  which 
is  now  almost  universally  received  among  philosophers, 
we  shall  proceed  to  explain.  We  do  not  offer  it  as  posi- 
tively true  or  as  proved  by  experiment.  Subsequent  dis- 
coveries may  entirely  destroy  it,  but  an  acquaintance 
with  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  general  reader.  For 
in  the  first  place,  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  describe  the 
facts  in  this  science  without  using  the  language  of  theo- 
ry ;  —  and  in  the  second  place,  this  theory  is  now  so  uni- 
versally received,  that  no  book  on  electricity  would  be 
intelligible  to  a  reader  without  a  knowledge  of  its  princi- 
ples. 

The  hypothesis  is,  that  there  is  pervading  all  substances 
a  subtile  and  highly  elastic  fluid,  which  is  however  itself 
entirely  void  of  any  sensible  weight.  This  fluid  is  sup- 
posed to  be  capable  of  moving  over  the  surfaces  of  dif- 
ferent bodies,  —  in  some  cases  with  greater,  and  in 


476  ELECTRICITV. 


others  with  less  degrees  of  rapidity.  In  some  substances 
called  conductors  it  moves  without  any  apparent  obstruc- 
tion, but  in  glass,  resin  and  all  bodies  called  non-conduc- 
tors, it  moves  with  great  difficulty.  This  fluid  exists  in 
two  distinct  forms  called  resinous  and  vitreous.  Each  of 
these,  when  separate,  have  the  general  properties  enu- 
merated above  ;  but  in  relation  to  each  other  there  is  a 
complete  contrariety  in  their  natures,  so  that  when  com- 
bined together  their  powers  are  completely  balanced  and 
neutralized,  and  all  visible  action  ceases.  This  state  of 
unions  is  the  natural  state  of  electricity  in  all  bodies. 

1.  Theory  of  the  excitation  of  the  electric  jluid.     By 
various  causes  this    state   of   union  may  be  disturbed. 
When  this  is  done,  the  powers  before  latent  are    called 
forth  by  the  separation  of  the  fluids.     The  vitreous  passes 
in  one  direction  and  the  resinous   in  the  opposite,  and 
each  existing  thus  in  a  separate  state,  produces  its  pecu- 
liar effects.     Thus,  when  glass  is  rubbed  with  silk,  a  por- 
tion of  the  electricity  of  these  bodies  is  decomposed. 
The  vitreous   electricity  goes  to  the  glass ;  the  resinous 
to  the  silk ;  and  then  each  can  produce  visible  effects. 
In  the   same  manner   when  sealing   wax  is  rubbed  with 
flannel  a  similar  separation  takes  place.     The  resinous 
electricity  however  enters  the  sealing  wax  and  the  vitre- 
ous the  flannel. 

2.  Theory  of  electric  attraction  and  repulsion.     Each 
of  these  fluids  are  supposed  to  be  elastic,  and  consequent- 
ly their  particles  repel  each  other.     From  very  exact  ex- 
periments it  has  been  ascertained,  that  the  force  of  this 
repulsion  is  inversely,  as  the  square  of  the  distance ;  and 
this  repulsion  is  not  interrupted  by  the  intervention  of 
any  other  body. 

Although  each  fluid  repels  itself,  each  exerts  a  strong 
attraction  for  the  opposite  species,  and  this  attraction  in- 
creases with  the  diminution  of  distance,  and  in  the  same 
ratio  as  the  repulsion  mentioned  above  ;  —  that  is,  in  the 
inverse  ratio  of  the  square  of  the  distance.  This  force 
of  attraction  between  the  opposite  electricities,  like  the 
repulsion  between  the  particles  of  the  same  kind,  is  not 
affected  by  interposing  any  foreign  body  between  them. 
For  example,  if  two  pith  balls  resinously  electrified,  have 


ELECTRICITY.  •  477 


a  plate  of  glass  or  of  iron  placed  between  them,  they 
will  still  repel  each  other,  as  if  there  was  no  intervening 
object.  If  one  is  resinously,  and  the  other  vitreously 
electrified,  they  will  attract  each  other  notwithstanding 
the  intervention  of  the  plate. 

3.  Theory  of  the  discharge  of  the  electric  fluids.     Let 
us  suppose  two  brass  balls   to   be  charged,  one  with  the 
vitreous,  and  the  other  with   resinous  electricity.     Let 
both  of  them  be   suspended  by  silken  threads,  at  the  dis- 
tance of  several   inches  from   each  other.     The   silken 
thread  is  a  non-conductor,   the  air  around  the  balls  is  a 
non-coriductor,   and  the   vitreous  •  electricity   of  the  one 
ball,  and  the  resinous  electricity  of  the  other,  though  they 
have  a  strong  tendency  to  come  together,  into  their  origi- 
nal union,  yet  they  cannot  pass  through  the  intervening 
space,  for  both   balls  are  surrounded  by  non-conductors  ; 
or  in  the  technical  language,  they  are  insulated.     If  now, 
a  wire  is  brought  into  contact  with  both  the  balls,  a  con- 
nexion   will   be  formed,  for  the    wire    being    a    conduc- 
tor, the  two    fluids  can  pass    across  it  and  thus  become 
united,  and  diffused  in  their  natural  state  of  union,  over 
both  the  balls. 

4.  Theory  of  induction  of  electricity.     If  a  ball  vitre- 
ously electrified  and  suspended  by  a  silken  thread,  so  as 
to  be  insulated,  that  is,  surrounded  by  non-conductors,  IB 
brought  near  to  the  extremity  of  a  brass  rod,  in  its  natu- 
ral state,  but  suspended  by  a  silken  thread,   the  vitreous 
electricity  of  the   ball  will  repel   the  vitreous   electricity 
which  is  in  the  nearest  extremity  of  the  rod.     This  vitre- 
ous electricitv  will  pass  consequently  to  the  other  extremi- 
ty.    The    ball,   however,   besides  repelling  the  iritreous 
electricity  will  attract  the  rtsinons  electricity  of  the  rod 
to  the  end  nearest  itself;  for  it  was  stated  above,  that  vi- 
treous electricity  attracts  the  resinous,  as  well  as   repels 
the  vitreous.     The  rod  then,  through  the  influence  of  the 
ball,  will  have  its  resinous  electricity  collected  at  the  ex- 
tremity nearest  the  ball,  and  its  vitreous  electricity  driven 
back  to  the  extremity   farthest  from  it.     Thus  the  ball, 
by  its  presence  merely,  will  electrify  the   rod,  throwing 
the  two   extremities  into  opposite  states.     This  corres- 
ponds evidently  with  the  theory,  and  is  always  found  to 

VOL.   i.  — NO.  xx.         42* 


478  ELECTRICITY. 


take  place  in  experiment.  Universally,  whenever  an 
electric  body  is  brought  near  others  in  their  natural 
state,  it  produces  contrary  electricity  in  those  parts  which 
are  nearest  to  the  electrified  body.  This  is  called  induc- 
tion of  electricity. 

These  may  be  considered  as  the  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  the  theory.  It  was  originally  proposed  by  Du 
Faye,  a  French  philosopher.  Franklin  proposed  another, 
in  which  he  supposed  onlv  one  kind  of  electricity.  When 
bodies  had  an  excess  of  this,  they  were  said  to  be  posi- 
tively electrified  ;  —  when  there  was  a  deficiency,  ne- 
gatively. The  positive  electricity  of  Franklin  corres- 
ponds to  the  vitreous  of  Du  Faye,  and  the  negative  to  the 
resinous.  The  theory  of  two  fluids  is  now  almost  uni- 
versally received.  We  shall  accordingly  adopt  its 
phraseology  in  this  treatise,  and  proceed  to  describe  the 
facts  which  constitutes  this  science,  under  the  following 
heads. 

I.  Effects  produced  by  electricity  in  its  natural  state. 

II.  Means  of  accumulating  the  electrical  poic cr. 

III.  Effects  produced  by  electricity  when  accumulated. 

IV.  Effects  produced  by  electricity  when  in  motion. 

I.    .EFFECTS    PRODUCED  BY    ELECTRICITY  IN    ITS    NATURAL 
STATE. 

We  know,  unfortunately,  very  little  in  regard  to  this 
branch  of  our  subject.  The  univetsal  diffusion  of  this 
agent,  leads  us  to  suppose  that  the  Author  of  Nature, 
who  does  nothing  in  vain,  accomplishes  some  important 
ends  by  it,  in  its  ordinary  and  natural  operation.  What- 
ever these  ends  may  be,  philosophers  have  almost  en- 
tirely failed  to  discover  them.  Various  experiments  have 
been  performed  with  a  view  to  develope  some  unseen 
power  exerted  by  electricity,  in  the  process  of  vegetation, 
—  in  muscular  motion,  —  in  the  phenomena  of  crys- 
tallization,—  and  in  the  ordinary  fluctuations  of  wind 
and  weather.  But  these  attempts  have  been  attended 
with  very  partial  success.  Some  things,  indeed,  of  a 
very  interesting  character  have  been  brought  to  light, 
and  which,  in  a  more  full  treatise  than  this,  would  de- 


ELECTRICITY.  479 


serve  special  mention.  These  are  however  few.  Near- 
ly all  the  phenomena  which  have  attracted  attention,  are 
those  which  result  from  disturbances,  produced  by  nature 
or  art,  in  the  equilibrium  which  electricity  ordinarily 
assumes.  Sometimes  this  equilibrium  is  disturbed,  i.  e. 
an  unusual  quantity  of  electricity  is  collected,  or  a  body 
is  deprived  of  its  natural  share  by  the  electrical  machine, 
and  sometimes  this  effect  is  produced  by  the  great  pro- 
cesses of  nature.  We  are  thus  presented  with  the  various 
phenomena  of  the  laboratory,  or  the  dreadful  explosions, 
which  take  place  in  clouds  and  storms.  We  proceed, 
therefore,  to  describe  the  modes  by  which  electricity  is 
accumulated. 

II.     MEANS    OF    ACCUMULATING     THE    ELECTRICAL    POWER. 

1.  By  condensation  of  moisture.  If  water  is  poured 
upon  burning  coals,  a  great  quantity  of  vapor  is  produc- 
ed, which,  rising  into  the  cold  air,  is  immediately  con- 
densed, forming  a  white  cloud,  which  ascends  from  the 
blackened  coals.  If  now  a  wire  is  exposed  to  this  vapor, 
which  wire  is  connected  with  a  delicate  electrometer, 
i.  e.  an  instrument  hereafter  to  be  described,  by  which 
minute  quantities  of  electricity  are  made  sensible,  it 
will  be  found  (hat  electricity  is  accumulated  in  the  va- 
por. This  method  is  never  employed  however  for  prac- 
tical purposes.  It  is  interesting  chiefly  from  its  being 
the  mode  by  which  the  fluid  is  generally  accumulated  in 
nature.  The  clouds  are  masses  of  condensed  vapor. 
When  they  are  suddenly  formed,  they  become  rapidly 
charged  with  the  fluid,  which  darts  to  other  clouds  and 
to  the  ground,  and  constitutes  the  lightning.* 

It  is  a  common  though  very  absurd  notion,  that  the 
lightning  is  caused  by  sulphurous  vapors  which  collect 
in  the  air,  and  by  some  unaccountable  means,  take  fire 
and  explode.  There  is  no  way  by  which  such  vapor? 
can  be  formed ;  —  if  they  were  formed  they  would  bo 
diffused  and  mixed  with  the  atmosphere,  and  rendered 
no  longer  inflammable ;  —  and  even  if  we  suppose  them 

*  See  Scientific  Tract  on  the  Weather. 


480  ELECTRICITY. 


to  be  formed,  and  kept  together,  it  would  be  very  singu- 
lar that  they  should  take  fire  only  in  the  midst  of  a 
drenching  shower. 

2.  By  friction.  It  was  by  friction  that  electricity  was 
originally  discovered,  in  the  experiment  with  the  amber 
already  described.  It  has  since  been  ascertained  that 
many  other  substances,  when  first  rubbed,  will  exhibit 
the  same  effects.  For  example,  if  a  tube  of  glass  be 
rubbed  with  a  silk  handkerchief,  the  electricities  will  be 
separated;  —  the  resinous  will  accumulate  in  the  hand- 
kerchief, and  the  vitreous  in  the  glass.  The  cause  of 
this  change  is  not  known,  the  fact  only  has  been  observ- 
ed. If  after  the  friction  of  the  glass  with  the  silk,  the 
two  are  separately  examined,  both  will  be  found  elec- 
trified, but  they  will  be  in  opposite  states.  If,  however, 
we  take  a  rod  of  sealing  wax,  instead  of  glass,  and  rub 
it  with  flannel,  the  effect  will  be  reversed.  That  is,  the 
resinous  electricity  will  accumulate  in  the  sealing  wax, 
and  the  vitreous  in  the  flannel.  Glass  by  friction  with 
almost  all  substances  becomes  vitreously,  or  positively 
electrified.  Resins  by  friction  with  almost  all  substan- 
ces become  rcsinoitsly  or  negatively  electrified.  Those 
substances  called  conductors  of  electricity  will  not  be- 
come electrified  by  friction  at  all.  Nearly  if  not  quite 
all  other  bodies  may.  The  reason  why  conductors  can- 
not be  electrified  by  friction  seems  to  be  that,  on  account 
of  the  ease  with  which  the  fluid  passes  over  them,  no 
separation  of  the  two  electricities  can  be  effected.  Those 
substances  which  can  be  electrified  by  friction  are  call- 
ed electrics.  The  following  is  a  list  of  the  most  impor- 
tant of  them  :  —  Glass,  Precious  Stones,  Amber,  Sul- 
phur, Shell-lac,  Resinous  and  Bituminous  substance?, 
Silk,  Wax,  Cotton,  and  dry  animal  substances,  as  Feath- 
ers, Wool,  Hair,  &-c,  Paper,  Dry  Sugar,  Air  and  Gases. 

This  method  of  accumulating  electricity,  viz.  by  fric- 
tion, is  the  most  commonly  resorted  to,  for  experiments. 
The  apparatus  is  called  the  electrical  machine.  It  con- 
sists of  glass,  either  in  the  form  of  a  cylinder  or  plate, 
mounted  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  turned  rapidly,  by  a 
crank.  A  rubber,  made  of  silk  is  pressed  against  the 
glass «while  in  motion,  and  thus  the  vitreous  electricity  is 


ELECTRICITY.  481 


accumulated  upon  the  glass,  and  the  resinous  upon  the 
rubber.  It  is  plain,  that  the  form  of  the  glass  is  not  ma- 
terial, excepting  that  one  form  may  more  easily  be  mount- 
ed than  another.  The  most  common  form  is  a  cylinder 
or  a  jar.  Any  common  open  mouthed  jar  will  answer 
for  this  purpose.  Sometimes  plate  glass  is  used.  The 
advantage  of  this  is  that  a  rubber  may  be  applied  to  each 
side  of  the  glass,  which  increases  the  effect.  A  plate  ma- 
chine is  however  much  more  liable  to  be  broken,  and  is 
consequently  less  frequently  used.  The  axis  upon  which 
the  glass  turns  may  rest  upon  wooden  supports.  It  is 
desirable  however  that  the  rubber  should  be  supported 
by  a  glass  pillar,  for  reasons  which  will  hereafter  be  ex- 
plained. The  forms  which  the  electrical  machine  has 
assumed  are  very  various.  Different  artists  have  arrang- 
ed the  parts  to  suit  their  own  fancy,  or  the  particular 
purpose  for  which  each  machine  is  intended.  Almost 
all  electrical  machines,  however,  consist  essentially  of 
glass  cylinders  or  plates,  put  into  rapid  motions  by  means 
of  a  crank,  so  that  a  great  amount  of  friction  may  be  se- 
cured with  as  little  labor  as  possible  to  the  operator. 
This  is  all  that  is  essential,  and  by  understanding  this 
general  principle,  the  reader  can,  by  inspection,  clearly 
comprehend  the  details  of  any  particular  machine  which 
he  may  have  the  opportunity  of  examining. 

The  electricity  thus  accumulated  upon  the  glass  of  the 
electric  machine  is  received  usually  upon  a  metallic  cy- 
linder, which  is  a  sort  of  reservoir,  where  the  fluid  is  pre- 
served for  use.  From  this  cylinder  which  is  called  the 
prluK:  conductor,  there  proceed  a  number  of  sharp  metal' 
lie  points,  by  which  the  electricity  passes  off  from  the 
glass  cylinder  to  the  conductor.  The  reason  why  these 
points  are  used  will  be  hereafter  explained.  The  prime 
conductor  may  be  made  of  any  substance,  provided  that 
it  has  an  external  surface  of  metal.  Sometimes  it  is 
made  of  wood,  and  coated  with  sheet  lead  or  tin  foil. 
Sometimes  it  is  of  tin  or  brass  plate,  and  hollow.  The 
writer  of  this  tract  once  constructed  a  large  one,  five 
feet  long,  and  eight  or  ten  inches  in  diameter,  of  thin 
pine  boards,  put  together  like  the  staves  of  a  barrel,  — 
and  coated  with  sheet  lead.  The  prime  conductor  may 


482  ELECTRICITY. 


be  made  of  any  size  or  form,  or  of  any  substance  which 
is  a  conductor  of  electricity.  All  that  is  essential  is  that 
it  should  be  insulated,  that  is,  supported  and  surrounded 
by  non-conductors,  so  that  the  electricity  which  it  re- 
ceives may  be  retained.  A  conductor  of  immense  size 
was  once  constructed  of  common  military  drums,  coated 
with  tinfoil,  and  placed  one  upon  another,  forming  a  lofty 
column,  which  was  supported  at  the  base  by  a  cake  of 
beeswax  which  cut  off  all  electrical  communication  with 
the  ground. 

The  human  body  may  be  used  as  a  prime  conductor. 
In  order  to  insulate  it,  an  instrument  is  used  called  an 
Insulating-  Stool.  It  consists  simply,  of  a  stool  with 
glass  feet.  These  feet  or  legs  may  be  common  phials, 
with  the  neck  cemented  into  the  board,  which  forms  the 
upper  part  of  the  stool.  A  board  supported  upon  four 
common  tumblers,  or  a  cake  of  beeswax  will  answer  the 
purpose  equally  well.  The  human  body  thus  insulated 
may  be  charged  with  electricity,  and  from  it  the  fluid 
will  pass  in  sparks  to  the  surrounding  bodies.  Young 
persons,  who  amuse  themselves  with  electrical  ma- 
chines, find  an  inexhaustible  source  of  pleasure  from 
these  experiments  upon  each  other. 

Besides  the  prime  conductor,  there  is  another  sort  of 
reservoir  for  the  electric  fluid  when  it  is  developed  by 
the  electric  machine,  which  is  far  more  efficient.  It  is 
called  the  Leyden  Jar.  The  reader  will  recollect  that 
on  the  subject  of  the  theory  of  electricity,  it  was  stated 
that  any  body,  when  electrified,  and  brought  near  to 
other  bodies,  would  cause  them  to  assume  a  contrary 
electrical  state.  Consequently,  if  two  prime  conductors, 
one  positively  electrified,  and  the  other  in  its  natural 
state,  are  brought  within  the  influence  of  each  other, 
the  last  mentioned  will  become  negatively -electrified, 
and  upon  forming  a  connexion  between  the  two  they  will 
both  be  suddenly  discharged.  The  effect  will  be  in- 
creased in  proportion  to  the  nearness  of  the  two  con- 
ductors. If  however  there  is  nothing  but  air  between 
them,  they  cannot  be  brought  very  near  or  they  will  dis- 
charge themselves  through  the  air.  To  obviate  this  dif- 
ficrity,  a  thin  glass  plate  may  be  interposed,  and  in  order 


ELECTRICITY.  483 

that  the  form  of  the  two  conductors  may  be  such,  as  to 
bring  every  part  of  each  under  their  mutual  influence, 
simple  sheets  of  tin  foil  are  used,  pasted,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  plate  of  glass.  Now  if  one  of  these  sides  is 
connected  with  the  electrical  machine,  and  the  other 
with  the  ground,  both  will  become,  on  principles  already 
described,  highly  charged;  —  the  one  side  by  direct 
communication  and  the  other  by  induction,  as  explained 
on  page  477.  The  two  sides  will  however  be  charged 
with  opposite  electricities. 

A  glass  plate,  coated  in  this  way,  on  the  two  sides, 
would  not  be  a  very  convenient  apparatus.  The  same 
arrangement  is  however  effected  by  means  of  a  jar,  which 
is  coated  within  and  without.  From  the  inside  there 
arises  a  wire  with  a  knob  upon  the  top.  This  knob  is 
brought  into  contact,  when  the  machine  is  in  operation, 
with  the  prime  conductor,  and  thus  the  inside  of  the  jar 
is  positively  electrified.  By  the  influence  of  the  electrici- 
ty thus  conveyed  into  the  inside  of  the  jar,  acting  through 
the  glass,  the  outside  is  thrown  into  the  opposite  state, 
and  by  forming  a  communication  between  the  two,  a 
discharge  results,  which  produces  far  more  powerful  ef- 
fects than  the  prime  conductor. 

It  ought  to  be  noticed,  however,  that  the  form  of  the 
jar,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  coated,  are  of  no 
consequence.  All  that  is  essential  is  that  there  should 
be  two  metallic  surfaces,  separated  by  glass.  Sometimes 
the  jar  is  filled  with  shot.  Sometimes  coated  with  tin- 
foil, —  sometimes  with  brass  or  iron  filings,  made  to 
adhere  by  gum  water.  The  experiment  will  even  suc- 
ceed with  a  tumbler,  half  filled  with  water,  for  the  inside 
coating,  and  covered  on  the  outside,  as  high  as  the  sur- 
face of  the  water,  with  wet  paper.  In  all  cases  the  up- 
per part  of  the  glass,  which  is  not  covered  with  the  coat- 
ing, should  be  kept  perfectly  dry  and  clean,  lest  by  the 
moisture  accumulated  there,  there  should  be  an  acciden- 
tal communication  formed  between  the  inside  and  out- 
side  of  the  jar. 

'  It  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe,  that  every  species  of 
electrical  machine  will  naturally  require  some  particular 
precaution  ;  but  the  following  directions  are  more  or  less 


484  ELECTRICITY. 

applicable  to  all  kinds  of  machines  furnished  with  a  glass 
electric. 

'  Moisture  and  dust,  but  particularly  the  former,  be- 
ing detrimental  to  the  power  of  an  electrical  machine, 
it  becomes  necessary  to  guard  from  both  as  much  as 
may  be  practicable  ;  hence,  when  not  actually  in  use, 
the  electrical  machine  should  be  kept  in  a  dry  and  clean 
place,  and  at  least  the  glass  part  of  it  should  not  be  suf- 
fered to  remain  dirty  and  soiled.  If  the  machine  has 
been  long  neglected,  the  operator  in  order  to  render  it 
ready  for  use,  must  in  the  first  place  remove  the  rubber  ; 
he  must  then  place  the  machine  at  a  moderate  distance 
from  the  fire  ;  so  as  to  render  every  part  of  it  very  dry, 
but  not  too  warm.  This  done,  and  the  dust  removed, 
the  glass  part  of  the  machine  must  be  repeatedly  rubbed 
with  a  clean  and  warm  handkerchief  or  towel  ;  the  rub- 
ber, likewise  must  be  cleaned,  removing  all  the  old  amal- 
gam that  may  have  adhered  to  it.  The  glass  cylinder 
or  plate,  in  its  rotation  frequently  contracts  some  dark 
spots  or  concretions  upon  its  surface,  which  tend  to  di- 
minish its  power.  These  spots  which  adhere  pretty  fast 
to  the  glass,  may  be  removed  by  applying  a  finger's  nail 
to  each  spot,  or  by  rubbing  them  off  with  a  piece  of 
coarse  canvas.  Previously  to  the  replacing  of  the  rub- 
ber, the  following  operation  generally  contributes  to  in- 
crease the  excitation.  It  consists  in  touching  the  cylin- 
der with  the  bottom  of  a  tallow  candle  in  streaks  parallel 
to  the  axis  of  the  cylinder,  then  rub  the  cylinder  again 
with  a  dry  and  warm  linen  cloth;  taking  care  that  this 
cloth  be  not  very  old,  for  in  that  case  it  is  apt  to  leave 
filaments  about  the  glass,  and  about  the  rest  of  machine. 
This  done,  the  rubber  is  fixed  in  its  place,  and  its  sup- 
port i.3  adjusted,  so  that  the  rubber  may  bear  upon  the 
glass  with  a  proper  degree  of  pressure.  Formerly  the 
amalgam,  which  greatly  increases  the  power  of  excita- 
tion, was  spread  upon  the  rubber,  before  the  rubber  was 
put  in  its  place ;  but  experience  has  shown,  that  it  is 
much  better  to  fix  the  rubber  clean  in  its  place,  and  then 
to  apply  the  amalgam  upon  a  piece  of  leather  to  the  sur- 
face of  the  cylinder  while  this  is  revolving  in  its  usual 
directions ;  for  by  this  means  the  revolution  of  the  cylin- 

'-' 


ELECTRICITY.  485 


der  or  plate,  will  carry  away  from  the  leather  a  sufficient 
quantity  of  amalgam,  and  will  deposit  it  upon  the  rub- 
ber. The  leather  with  the  amalgam  needs  not  to  be 
kept  in  contact  with  the  glass  longer  than  while  the  cy- 
linder makes  eight  or  ten  revolutions;  moving,  at  the 
same  time  the  piece  of  leather  with  the  amalgam  from 
one  end  of  the  cylinder  to  the  other.  Now  if  the  cy- 
linder be  turned,  and  if  the  hand  or  the  end  of  the  fin- 
gers be  presented  to  it,  a  crackling  noise,  which  is  ac- 
companied with  numerous  brushes  in  a  dark  room,  indi- 
cates that  the  cylinder  is  in  good  action  ;  and  the  prime 
conductor  being  situated  in  its  proper  place,  you  may 
proceed  to  perform  the  experiments.  During  the  per- 
formance, the  electrified  part  of  the  machine  is  apt  to 
attract  dust  from  all  quarters,  to  obviate  which  the  room 
ought  to  be  previously  swept  and  dusted,  and  likewise 
the  operator  ought  to  have  a  clean  clolh  at  hand  to  wipe 
off  all  particles  of  dust  and  filaments,  which  in  spite  of 
all  his  precautions  will  frequently  run  to  the  cylinder, 
to  the  conductor,  &c. 

'  The  amalgam  remains  to  he  described.  Mr  Canton, 
as  far  as  we  are  informed,  first  applied  the  amalgam  of 
tin  and  mercury  to  the  rubber  of  an  electrical  machine, 
which  was  undoubtedly  a  capital  improvement ;  for  by 
this  means  an  electrical  machine  will  have  its  power 
more  than  quadrupled.  The  tin  amalgam  is  easily  made, 
for  if  you  triturate  tin  foil  and  mercury,  (in  the  propor- 
tion of  one  of  tin  to  two  parts  of  mercury)  in  a  mortar, 
or  even  in  the  palm  of  your  hand,  the  amalgam  will  be 
formed  in  a  minute  or  two. 

'  The  amalgam  of  mercury  and  any  metallic  substance 
that  may  be  amalgarned  by  it,  contributes  to  increase 
the  electric  power  of  glass,  but  some  are  more  efficacious 
than  others.  Mosaic  gold  has  also  been  found  efficacious 
for  the  purpose  of  excitation.  The  zinc  amalgam,  how- 
ever, which  was  first  recommended  by  Dr  Higgins,  has 
upon  the  whole  been  found  the  most  efficacious.  This 
amalgam,  which  consists  of  one  part  of  zinc  with  four  or 
five  parts  of  mercury,  is,  according  to  Mr  Cavallo,  pre- 
pared in  the  following  manner.  '  Let  the  quicksilver,' 
he  says,  '  be  heated  to  about  the  degree  of  boiling  water, 
VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xx.  43 


486 


and  let  the  zinc  be  melted  in  a  crucible  or  iron  ladle. 
Pour  the  heated  quicksilver  into  a  wooden  box,  and  im- 
mediately after  pour  the  melted  zinc  in  it.  Then  shut 
up  the  box  and  shake  it  for  about  half  a  minute.  After 
this  you  must  wait  until  the  amalgam  is  quite  cool,  or 
nearly  so,  and  then  you  may  mix  some  grease  with  it 
by  trituration.  If  the  melted  zinc  be  poured  into  the 
quicksilver  when  cold,  a  very  small  portion  of  the  for- 
mer will  be  amalgamed,  the  rest  remaining  in  lumps  of 
different  sizes.' 

The  following  drawing  and  description  of  a  simple 
Electrical  Machine  and  conductor,  is  from  Cavallo. 

The  figure  represents  an 
electrical  machine  of  the 
simplest  sort.  G  E  F,  is  a 
strong  board,  which  sup- 
ports all  the  parts  of  this 
machine,  and  which  may  be 
fastened  to  a  strong  table  by 
means  of  one  or  more  iron 
or  brass  clamps,  as  at  Q. 
The  glass  cylinder  A  B, 
quite  clean  and  dry  in  its 
inside,  is  about  ten  inches 
in  diameter,  and  is  furnish- 
ed with  two  caps  either  of  wood  or  brass,  into  which  its 
two  short  necks  are  firmly  cemented.*  Each  of  these 
caps  has  a  pin,  or  projection,  or  pivot,  which  turns  in  a 
hole  through  the  wooden  pieces  A  and  B,  which  are  ce- 
mented on  the  top  of  glass  pillars,  (or  pillars  of  baked 
wood,)  B  E  and  A  G,  which  are  firmly  fixed  to  the  bot- 
tom board  G  E  F.  One  of  the  above  mentioned  pro- 
jections passes  quite  through  the  wooden  piece,  as  at  A, 
and  has  a  square  termination,  to  which  the  winch  A  D 
is  applied  and  secured  on  by  means  of  a  screw-nut. 
Then  by  applying  the  hand  at  D,  the  operator  may  turn 
the  cylinder,  &c.  Sometimes  the  part  A  C,  of  the 

*  The  best  cement  for  this  purpose  is  made  by  melting  and  incor- 
porating; together  five  parts  of  resin,  four  of  beeswax  and  two  parts 
of  powdered  red  ochre. 


ELECTRICITY.  487 


winch  is  made  of  glass,  in  order  the  more  effectually  to 
prevent  the  escape  of  the  electric  fluid  from  the  cylin- 
der. This  is  not,  however  necessary,  nor  is  it  even  ne- 
cessary to  have  the  pillars  of  glass.  /  R,  is  the  rubber, 
and  IRK,  is  the  silken  floss.  This  cushion  or  rubber 
is  fastened  to  a  spring,  which  proceeds  from  a  socket  ce- 
mented on  the  top  of  the  glass  pillars  S.  The  lower  part 
of  this  pillar  is  fixed  into  a  small  board  which  slides  upon 
the  bottom  board  of  the  machine,  by  means  of  a 
screw-nut,  and  may  be  fixed  more  or  less  forward  in  order 
that  the  rubber  may  press  more  or  less  upon  the  cylinder. 
N  F  is  a  glass  pillar  which  is  fixed  in  the  bottom  board, 
and  supports  the  prime  conductor  M  L,  of  hollow  brass 
or  tin  plates,  which  has  the  collector  or  pointed  wires  at 
L,  and  knobbed  wire  at  M.  From  this  brass  knob  O,  a 
larger  spark  may  be  drawn  than  from  any  other  part  of 
the  conductor.  But  this  knobbed  wire  is  only  screwed 
into  the  conductor,  and  may  be  easily  removed  from  it. 

These  three  articles  of  electrical  apparatus,  the  Elec- 
trical Machine,  the  Prime  Conductor,  and  the  Leyden 
Jar,  are  the  most  important  instruments  used  for  excit- 
ing and  accumulating  the  electrical  power.  We  come 
now  to  consider  our  third  division. 

HI.    EFFECTS    PRODUCED    BY    ELECTRICITY    WHEN    ACCU- 
MULATED. 

1.  Distribution  of  electricity  over  the  surfaces  of  bodies. 

It  was  early  observed  that  the  electric  fluid  resides  on 
the  surface,  not  within  the  substance  of  the  electrified 
body,  but  the  manner  in  which  it  distributes  itself  over 
the  surface  was  left,  strange  as  it  may  appear,  to  be  dis- 
covered by  the  application  of  purely  mathematical  rea- 
soning. The  existence  of  the  fluid,  and  the  repulsion 
between  its  particles,  were  the  data  in  this  investigation, 
and  from  these,  the  manner  in  which  it  must  distribute 
itself  over  bodies  of  every  possible  variety  of  form,  may 
be  precisely  ascertained.  In  order  to  determine  whether 
these  results  of  theory  should  correspond  with  observed 
fact,  M.  Coulomb  made  use  of  his  celebrated  torsion 
balance,  the  principles  of  whose  construction  have  been 


4S8  ELECTRICITY. 


already  described  in  the  Tract  on  Gravitation.  By 
means  of  this,  very  minute  forces  could  be  accurately 
measured.  Coulomb  cut  out  a  small  disc  or  circle  of 
gilt  paper,  which  he  attached  to  a  silk  thread.  This  he 
called  the  proof  plane,  and  by  applying  this  successive- 
ly to  the  various  parts  of  an  electrified  body,  and  bring- 
ing it  to  his  balance,  the  degree  to  which  the  various 
parts  were  charged,  were  very  accurately  ascertained. 
The  results  of  these  experiments  were  found  to  corres- 
pond very  exactly  with  the  theory.  Some  of  the  general 
principles  in  regard  to  the  manner  in  which  electricity 
diffuses  itself  over  the  surfaces  of  bodies,  thus  doubly 
proved,  are  as  follows. 

(a)  Tf  a  spherical  body  be  charged  with  electricity, 
vitreous  or   resinous,  the  whole  fluid  is,  in  consequence 
of  the  repulsion  of  its  own  particles,  accumulated  in  a 
thin,  uniform  stratum  at  the  surface. 

(b)  If  the  body,  instead  of  being  spherical   is  elonga- 
ted, then  there  will  be  a  greater  charge  toward  the  ci- 
trcmities,  than  near  the  middle. 

(c)  If  the  elongation  of  the  body  is  carried  as  far  as 
possible,  i.  e.  if  it  assumes  a  pointed  form,  the  accumu- 
lation of  the  fluid  at  the  extremities,  will  be  increased 
to  a  very  high  degree,  and  the  electricity  will  pass  off 
in  a  rapid  stream. 

(d)  The  electricity  of  a  charged  body,  resides  at  the 
surface.      Coulomb  ascertained  this  by   experiment  in 
this  way.     He  caused  little  holes  or  pits  to  be  bored  in  a 
brass  ball,  and  then  after  having  charged  it,  he  let  down 
his  proof  plane  to  the  bottom.     On  withdrawing  it,  and 
applying  it  to  his  balance  it  gave  no  signs  of  electricity. 

2.  Attraction  and  Repulsion. 

It  has  been  before  stated,  in  the  brief  notice  of  the  The- 
ory of  Electricity,  that  a  repulsion  always  exists  between 
bodies  similarly  electrified,  and  an  attraction  between  those 
which  are  in  opposite  states.  It  will  also  be  remembered 
that,  by  the  process  called  induction,  which  has  been  de- 
scribed on  a  previous  page,  whenever  a  body  electrified  in 
either  way,  is  brought  into  the  vicinity  of  other  bodies  Us 
mere  presence  electrifies  them.  An  electrified  body  will 

' 


ELECTRICITY.  489 


consequently  always  be  surrounded  by  other  electrified  bo- 
dies. I  bring  a  brass  ball  highly  charged  with  electrici- 
ty, and  suspended  by  a  silk  string  or  held  by  a  glass 
handle,  so  as  to  be  insulated,  over  a  table  containing 
upon  it  small  pieces  of  paper.  By  induction  the  ball 
electrifies  the  paper  in  a  manner  contrary  to  itself.  The 
ball  and  the  paper  are  consequently  in  opposite  electri- 
cal states,  and  will  therefore  attract  each  other.  The 
papers  will  fly  up  to  the  ball.  This  experiment  in  sub- 
stance, may  be  tried  by  the  reader.  Rub  with  a  hot 
silk  handkerchief,  a  dry  and  clean  tumbler ;  it  will  be- 
come electrified  and  will  attract  to  it  the  bits  of  paper, 
as  well  as  if  a  brass  ball  were  used.  Suppose  a  thun- 
der cloud  highly  charged  with  vitreous  electricity  is  pass- 
ing. Its  influence  is  to  electrify  resinously  the  region 
over  which  it  moves,  and  it  will  be  attracted  by  it,  and 
drawn  down  nearer  the  earth.  And  universally,  an  elec- 
trified body  produces  an  opposite  electrical  state  in  the 
neighboring  bodies,  or  parts  of  bodies,  and  then  attracts 
them. 

On  the  other  hand  if  two  bodies  similarly  electrified 
are  brought  near  each  other,  they  repel.  If,  for  exam- 
ple, two  pith  balls,  both  electrified  positively,  are  sus- 
pended by  threads  near  each  other,  they  will  recede, 
and  hang  in  diverging  lines. 

This  principle  of  repulsion  between  similar  electrici- 
ties, and  attraction  between  those  of  an  opposite  charac- 
ter, is  the  foundation  of  many  amusing  experiments, 
some  of  which  we  shall  proceed  to  describe. 

1.  The  pith  balls.     If  one  small  pith  or  cork  ball,  is 
suspended  by  a  thread,  and  another,  electrified,  is  brought 
near  to  it,  they  will  attract  each  other.     If  the  stationa- 
ry ball  is  previously  electrified  in   a  manner  opposite  to 
the  other,  they  will  attract  more  strongly;  if  in  a  similar 
manner,  they  will  repel. 

2.  The  Electrometer.     Electrometers  are  instruments 
designed  to  measure  electricity,  or  rather  to  indicate  its 
intensity.     They  are  of  several  kinds.     Two  pith  balls 
suspended  at  the  end  of  a  rod  of  glass,  diverge  when 
brought  near  any  electrified  body,  for  they  become  simi- 
larly electrified,  and  repel  each  other.     Sometimes  a  pith 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xx.         43* 


400 


ELECTRICITY. 


ball  a  is  fastened  at  one  extremity  of  a 
1  light  and  slender  rod  c  a,  moving  on  the 
centre  c.  The  part  b  is  inserted  into 
the  prime  conductor.  When  the  con- 
ductor is  charged,  the  stem  c  b  and  the 
ball  a  become  similarly  electrified  and  of 
course  repel  each  other.  The  ball  ac- 
cordingly rises  up  the  quadrant  c  a  to  a 
height  which  depends  upon  the  intensi- 
ty of  the  charge.  This  is  called  the 
Quadrant  Electrometer. 

There  is  a  Silver  Leaf  Electrometer,  extremely  deli- 
cate in  its  structure  and  operations.  Two  slender  strips 
of  silver  or  gold  leaf  are  suspended  from  the  same  point. 
The  electricity  causes  them  to  diverge.  Various  other 
instruments  for  the  purpose  of  indicating  the  presence  of 
electricity,  have  been  contrived,  but  they  are  all  on  the 
principle  of  the  divergence  of  light  bodies  freely  sus- 
pended, and  similarly  electrified. 

3.  The  divergent  hair.     If  an  individual  whose  hair  is 
loose  and  flexible,  stands  upon  the  insulating  stool  and  is 
electrified,  the  hairs  of  the  head,  each  being  repelled  by 
the  others,  stand  out  in  all  directions,  and  present  a  very 
grotesque  appearance.     Sometimes  a  little  image  is  made 
with  hair  of  a  peculiarly  dry  and  flexible  character,  to 
be  attached  to  the  prime  conductor. 

4.  The  electrical  snow  storm.     A  hollow   metallic  cup 
is  placed  upon  the  prime   conductor  and  filled  with  light 
shavings  of  pith,   or  small  pieces  of  paper,  or  any  other 
similar  substance.     When  the  conductor   is  electrified 
these  become  mutually  repulsive,  and  fly  off  in  every  di- 
rection, producing  what  the  electricians  call  an  electrical 
snow  storm. 

5.  The  electrical  jet .     A  little  vessel  with  a  hole  in  its 
side,  so  small  that  the  water  oozes  through  in  drops,  is 
hung  upon  the  prime  conductor.     When  the  apparatus 
is  charged,  the  mutual  repulsion  of  the  particles  causes 
the  water  to  fly  out  in  a  stream. 

6.  The.  thread  of  sealing  wax.     Attach  a  small  piece 
of  soaliug-wax  to  the  extremity  of  a  wire,  and   warm  it 
so  as  to  render  it  ready  to  drop  ;  and  at  the  same  time 


ELECTKICITV.  491 


let  the  electrical  machine  be  worked ;  then  stop  the  mo- 
tion of  the  machine,  and  instantly  bring  the  hot  sealing- 
wax  within  four  or  five  inches  of  the  prime  conductor, 
moving  it  about  in  a  winding  direction,  and  you  will  find 
that  the  sealing-wax  throws  several  exceedingly  fine 
threads  to  the  prime  conductor,  which  appear  like  red 
wool.  This  experiment  answers  best  where  the  conduc- 
tor is  covered  with  varnish. 

Mr  Adams  describes  this  experiment  in  the  following 
manner.  '  Stick,'  he  says,  '  a  piece  of  sealing-wax  on 
the  conductor  in  such  a  manner,  as  it  may  easily  be  set 
on  fire  by  a  taper.  While  it  is  flaming,  turn  the  cylin- 
der, the  wax  will  become  pointed,  and  shoot  out  an  al- 
most invisible  thread  into  the  air,  to  the  length  of  a  yard 
and  more.  If  the  filaments  that  are  thrown  out  by  the 
wax  are  received  on  a  sheet  of  paper,  the  paper  will  be 
covered  with  them  in  a  very  curious  manner,  and  the 
particles  of  the  wax  will  be  so  far  subdivided  as  to  re- 
semble fine  cotton.  To  fasten  the  piece  of  wax  conve- 
niently to  the  conductor,  stick  it  first  on  a  small  piece  of 
paper,  then  twist  the  end  of  the  paper  so  as  to  fit  one  of 
the  holes  which  are  made  in  the  prime  conductor  ;  when 
it  is  thus  placed  it  may  easily  be  fired  by  a  taper.' 

7.  The  dancing  images.  A  flat  circular  piece  of 
copper  is  suspended  in  a  horizontal  position  from  the 
prime  conductor.  At  the  distance  of  a  few  inches  from 
it,  another  similar  piece  is  laid  upon  the  table  or  upon 
something  connected  with  the  table.  Upon  this  last  me- 
tallic plate,  the  experimenter  lays  a  few  paper  images, 
generally  made  of  a  grotesque  form,  and  upon  charging 
the  prime  conductor  and  of  course  the  upper  metallic 
plate,  these  images  are  attracted  to  it.  Upon  coming  in 
contact  they  become  similarly  electrified,  and  are  conse- 
quently immediately  repelled.  They  fall  back  to  the 
lower  plate,  where  they  part  with  their  electricity,  and 
are  immediately  attracted  again,  and  thus  by  an  alter- 
nate attraction  and  repulsion,  they  dance  from,  one  to  the 
other  with  no  little  agility. 

8.  The  dancing  balls.  In  this  case  the  inside  of  a 
tumbler  is  charged  by  bringing  the  parts  successively  into 
contact  with  a  brass  ball  connected  with  the  prime  con- 


492  ELECTRICITY. 


ductor.  This  tumbler  ia  now  inverted  over  a  number  of 
pith  balls  lying  upon  the  table,  and  the  balls  by  an  alter- 
nate attraction  and  repulsion,  similar  to  that  explained  at 
length  under  the  head  of  dancing  images,  leap  up  and 
down  until  they  have  conveyed  away  all  the  electricity 
from  the  glass  to  the  table  and  thus  to  the  earth. 

9.  The  electrical  spider.     Two  Leyden  jars  are  elec- 
trified with  opposite  electricities,  and  a  little  image  of  an 
insect,  —  the  form  of  the  spider  is  generally  chosen,  —  is 
suspended   between   them.     The  spider  is  attracted  to 
one,  then  repelled,  because  at  the  moment  of  contact,  it 
becomes  similarly  electrified  ;  it  is  then  immediately  at- 
tracted to  the  other,  —  to  touch  it,  and  to  fly  off  again  at 
the   instant  of  contact.     This  flying  from  one  to  the 
other  continues  until  the  jars  are  discharged. 

10.  The  electrical  bells.     An  apparatus  is  made   by 
which  two  bells  hanging  side  by  side,  are  connected,  the 
one  with  the  prime  conductor,   and  the  other  with  the 
earth,    a  little   brass  ball    is   suspended    between    them 
which,   precisely    on    the    principle    above    described, 
swings  from  one  to  the  other,  giving  each  a  slight  stroke 
sufficient  to  emit  a  very  distinct  sound.     As  the  clapper 
flies  across  with  great  rapidity,  and  in  ordinary  cases 
there  are  three  bells,  two  of  which  are  connected  with 
the  conductor,  the  apparatus  keeps  up  a  very  merry  ring- 
ing, sometimes  for  half  an  hour. 

It  is  said  that  Franklin  had  an  apparatus  of  this  kind 
attached  to  his  lightning  rod  by  the  ringing  of  which,  he 
was  notified  of  the  approach  of  thunder. 

11.  Electrical  powders.    Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of 
all  the  experiments  illustrating  electrical  attraction  and 
repulsion,  are  those  in  which  various  powders  are  attract- 
ed to  electrified  surfaces.     One  of  the  simplest  modes  by 
which  the  experiment  can  be  performed  is  as  follows. 
Pour  upon  a  small  board  with  raised  edges,  a  quantity  of 
resin.     When  it  is  cooled,  it  forms  a  smooth  and  level 
surface.     Touch  this  surface  in  several  points  with  the 
knob  of  a  jar  electrified  vitreously  or  positively,  and  in 
several  other  points  with  the  knob  when  it  is  electrified 
resinously  or  negatively.     The  knobs  will  communicate 
there  respective  electricities  to  a  little  region  around  the 


ELECTRICITY. 


493 


points  of  contact.  Mix  now  some  red  lead  and  sulphur 
as  intimately  as  possible,  and  by  means  of  a  bellows  or 
some  similar  contrivance,  project  them  thus  mixed 
through  the  air.  As  they  pass  through  the  air,  the  red 
lead  by  the  friction  becomes  electrified  vitreously,  and 
accordingly  it  will  be  attracted  towards  the  resinous 
spots.  The  sulphur  electrifies  itself  resinously  and  will 
accordingly  be  drawn  towards  the  vitreous  spots.  Thus 
the  two  powders  will  be  entirely  separated,  and  will  ar- 
range themselves  in  beautiful  figures  upon  the  plate. 
They  will  gather  around  the  vitreous  spots  in  long  and 
beautiful  ramifications,  extending  in  every  direction  from 
the  point  touched,  and  upon  those  electrified  resinously 
the  powder  will  gather  in  a  circle  uniformly  covered, 
but  not  very  distinctly  defined. 

'  These  powders  may  be  sifted  over  the  electrified 
body  from  a  common  sieve  ;  they  may  be  tied  up  in  linen 
rags,  and  shaken  out  of  them  ;  they  may  be  projected  by 
means  of  a  brush ;  also  by  means  of  a  pair  of  bellows. 
But  a  more  commodious  method  is  as  follows  :  Fix  a 
tube  of  wood,  or  glass,  or  metal,  to  the  neck  of  a  small 
bottle  of  India  rubber  ;  put  the  powders  to  be  projected 
into  this  bottle,  and  then  tie  a  double  piece  of  flannel 
over  the  aperture  of  the  tube.  If  this  bottle,  so  prepar- 
ed, be  held  in  the  hand,  and  be  squeezed  by  alternately 
Opening  and  shutting  the  hand,  the  powders  will  be  pro- 
jected in  a  fine  diffused  manner.' 

These  experiments  with  the  powders  may  be  almost 
endlessly  varied.  The  following  are  some  of  the  most 
usual  forms. 

(a)  '  Take  a  pane  of  glass,  clean  and  dry,  hold  it  sus- 
pended by  one  corner,  or  lay  it  flat  upon  a  table,  and 
draw  over  the  surface  of  it  the  knob  of  a  Leyden  phial, 
moderately  charged  with  positive  electricity  in  its  inside ; 
then  lift  up  the  glass,  if  laid  upon  the  table,  and  holding 
it  suspended,  project  upon  it  a  mixed  powder,  consist- 
ing of  powdered  dragon's  blood  and  gum  arabic  in  equal 
parts.  The  two  powders  will  be  separated  upon  the 
glass  ;  the  red  powder  of  dragon's  blood  falling  on  cer- 
tain places,  so  as  altogether  to  form  an  oblong,  radiated 
track,  consisting  of  two  colors  intermixed  in  a  thousand 


494  ELECTRICITY. 


odd  ways.  If,  instead  of  drawing  the  knob  of  the  jar 
over  the  surface  of  the  glass,  we  only  touch  the  surface 
of  it  here  and  there  with  the  knob  of  the  jar,  and  then 
project  the  mixed  powders  as  before ;  separate  star-like 
figures  will  be  formed  about  those  points.  The  stars, 
however,  are  more  defined  where  a  single  powder  is  pro- 
jected. Their  rays  or  ramifications  sometimes  are  few 
and  strong ;  at  other  times  they  are  numerous  and  slen- 
der ;  and  frequently  they  do  not  go  quite  round  the  points 
which  had  been  touched  with  the  knob  of  the  jar. 

(b)  '  Repeat  the  preceding  experiment  with  this  va- 
riation only ;  viz.  that  now  the  Leyden  phial  be  charged 
negatively  in  the  inside,  and  the  appearance  of  the  con- 
figurations will  be  much  different  from  the  above  describ- 
ed, which  was  produced   by  positive  electricity.     In  the 
present,  very  few  rays  or  branicles  will  be  observed  ;  the 
powders  mostly  disposing  themselves   in  roundish  spots, 
and  generally  it  will  be  found  that  a  central  spot  of  one 
powder  is  surrounded  by  another  powder  of  a  different 
color. 

'  Instead  of  dragon's  blood  and  gum  arabic,  powders 
of  other  colors  may  be  projected  upon  the  pane  of  glass, 
such  as  powdered  Prussian  blue,  sulphur,  vermilion,  re- 
sin, &c,  and  thus  the  colors  of  the  configurations  may 
be  varied. 

'  These  powders  adhere  to  the  glass  rather  slightly,  so 
as  not  to  bear  being  touched  ;  yet,  if  a  piece  of  paper  be 
gently  laid  on  the  painted  side  of  the  glass,  without  rub- 
bing it,  and  the  edge  of  the  paper  be  pasted  all  round 
the  edge  of  the  glass,  the  figures  may  be  preserved  with- 
out injury.  But  a  better  method  is,  to  lay  another  pane 
of  glass  of  the  same  size  upon  the  former,  and  to  fasten 
them  by  pasting  a  slip  of  paper  all  round  their  edges.  If 
such  powders  as  are  used  by  enamellers  be  projected 
upon  glass  or  porcelain,  and  these  be  afterward  exposed 
to  a  proper  degree  of  heat  in  an  enameller's  furnace, 
the  configurations  will  thereby  be  rendered  indelible. 

(c)  *  Take  a  piece  of  common  writing  paper,  hold  it 
very  near  the  fire,  so  as  to  render  it  quite  dry  and  very 
hot ;  lay  it  flat  upon  a  dry  marble  slab  or  a  very  dry  ta- 
ble, and   in  that  situation  draw  over  it  the  knob  a  charg- 


ELECTRICITY.  495 


ed^Leyden  phial*;  then  lift  up  the  piece  of  paper  by  one 
corner,  and  holding  it  suspended,  project  upon  it  the 
mixed  powder  of  dragon's  blood  and  gum  arabic,  by 
means  of  the  elastic  gurn  bottle.  The  configurations  in 
this  case  are  very  beautiful,  and  may  be  made  in  various 
shapes,  such  as  letters,  stars,  stripes,  &-c,  by  moving  the 
knob  of  Dhe  Leyden  phial  in  the  desired  direction  ;  but 
they  are  of  one  color  ;  viz.  red,  for  the  gum  arabic  beititf 
nearly  of  the  color  of  the  paper,  cannot  be  distinguished 
upon  it.  If  the  paper  thus  painted  be  held  very  near  to 
the  fire  during  a  few  seconds,  the  powder  of  dragon's 
blood  being  a  resinous  substance,  will  be  melted,  and 
will  be  fastened  on  the  paper ;  after  which  the  powder  of 
gum  arabic  may  be  wiped  off  with  a  handkerchief. 

'  Powders  of  other  colors  may  be  projected  upon  the 
paper,  after  the  same  manner,  but  unless  they  are  of  a 
resinous  nature,  so  as  to  be  easily  melted  by  heat,  it  is 
very  difficult  to  fasten  them  to  the  paper.  In  these  ex- 
periments the  Leyden  phial  must  not  be  charged  too  high 
nor  too  low  ;  for  in  the  former  case,  the  figure  will  be  too 
confused  and  irregular,  and  in  the  latter  it  will  be  too 
faint.  In  order  to  form  a  neat  and  determinate  figure, 
and  to  leave  the  rest  of  the  paper  clean,  the  powders 
must  not  be  projected  perpendicularly  to  the  paper,  but 
the  stream  must  be  thrown  in  a  direction  parallel  to  the 
surface  of  the  paper.  It  is  also  necessary  to  perform 
these  experiments  in  as  expeditious  a  manner  as  possible ; 
for,  if  the  paper  be  suffered  to  cool  too  much,  or  the 
electricity  to  dissipate,  the  desired  effect  cannot  be  ob- 
tained.' 

12.  The  fying  feather  or  the  electrical  shuttlecock. 
Take  an  excited  glass  tube  in  one  of  your  hands,  and 
let  a  small  light  feather  be  left  in  the  air,  at  the  distance 
of  about  eight  or  ten  inches  from  the  tube.  This  fea- 
ther will  be  immediately  attracted  by  the  tube,  and  will 
adhere  very  closely  to  its  surface  during  a  few  seconds, 
and  sometimes  longer;  then,  having  acquired  the  same 
sort  of  electricity,  it  will  be  repelled,  and  by  keeping 
the  tube  under  it,  the  feather  will  continue  to  float  in  the 
air  at  a  considerable  distance  from  the  tube.  By  man- 
aging the  tube  dexterously  you  may  drive  the  feather  to 
any  part  of  the  room  at  pleasure. 


AGENTS 

FOR  THB 

SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS^ 

MAINE. 

Portland,          Samuel  Colman. 

Norwich,             Thomas  Rabinson. 
Middletown,       F.dwin  111*1. 

Hallowcll,         C.  Spauldinff. 

NEW  YORK. 

Augusta,           P.  J).  Bri'ismade, 

New  York,          Charles  S.  Francis. 

Bangor,             B.  Jfourte. 
Bell-ist,              A".  P.  Have*. 

Albany,               Little  tf    Cuminiiigs. 
Canandaigua,     Bcmis  4-    Wird. 

Pnatnnrt            \  H~  S'  f'<";or> 

Eastport,        |  B    f,olggmf 

Troy,                    W.  S.  1'arker. 
Utica,                  Kdusard  Vernon, 

Norway,           Jlxa  Barton. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 

Rochester,          E.  Peck  If   Co. 
NEW  JERSEY. 

~     o,               (  Kli  French, 

Newark,                Wm  Hurts. 

Uover»             i  S.  C.  Stevens. 

Trenton,              I).  Fruton. 

Hanover,            Thomas  Mann. 

PENNSYLVANIA. 

Concord,           Horatio  Mill  $•   Co. 
Keene,               George  Tildvi. 
Portsmouth,      John  W.  Foster, 
VERMONT. 

Philadelphia,     Thomas  71  4*A. 
MARYLAND. 
Baltimore,          P.  JV.  Wood. 
DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 

Burlington,       C.  Goodrich. 
Brnttleboro',     Gco.  H.  Peck. 

Washington,      Thompson  tf  Ho,  nans. 
Georgetown,       James  Thuiaui 

Windsor,           Simeon  Ide. 

VIRGINIA. 

Montpelier,       J.  S.    Walton. 
Bellows  Falls,  James  I.  Cutler  t(  Co. 

Fredericksburg,  Mm.  F.  Gray,  P.  M 
OHIO. 

Rutland,            Hawkes  $  While. 
Sliddlebury,      Jonathan  Hagar. 

Cincinnati,     j  c^D^hrfd'^rd  ""ra/'*' 

Caitleton,          B.  Burt  Zd. 

Columbus,          /  A".  Whitu,,r 

St  Albans,         L.  /..  Dutcher. 

MISSISSIPPI.    "' 

Chester,             Charles  Whipple. 

Natches,           F.  Beaumont. 

MASSACHUSETTS. 

SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Salem,                Whipple  %  Lawrence. 

Charleston,    j  O^'ROOHWA''' 

Newburyport,    !  j,  "^  £S£  ^  'white 
Vorthampton.  S.  Butler  4-  Son. 

Cherau,               JJr  Maynard.  ' 
NORTH  CAROLINA. 

Andover,           M.  Jftwmun. 
Amherst,           J.  S.  tf   C.  tfdams. 

Raleigh,             Turner  if   Hughes. 
GEORGIA. 

Worcester,        Dorr  *  Howland. 

Savannah,          Thumus  M.  Dr-tcoll. 

Springfield,        Thomas  Dickman. 
New  Ftedford,    Wm  C    Tabor. 

ALABAMA 
Mobile,              Oiliunif  t-  Smith 

Methuen,           J.  W.   Carlton  $  Co. 

LOUISIANA. 

Brookfield,        E.  tf  G.  JHerriam. 

New  Orleans,    Mi,™  Carroll. 

Greenfield,        Merriam,  Little  If  Co. 
RHODE  ISLAND. 

MICHIGAN  TERRITORY. 

Detroit,              Georirc  L.   HJntney. 

_                        (  Corey  if  B*oirn 

CANADA. 

frovidence,      ^    g-   B(.ekwittl               Montreal,          H.  H.  Cunningham. 

CONNECTICUT.                     duebec,             Jfriison  Sf  Cowan. 

Hartford,           H.  *  F.J.  /fnntingtonl                             EN(iLAND. 

New  Haven,     A.  //.  Jllaltby                 Lon  on                John  Marde.n, 

PUBLISHED    BY    CARTER     AND     I1ENDEE. 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 

r     ir 

%*  TERMS  —  24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOLLAK  AND  FIFTY 

CENTS. 

SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS. 

NUMBER   XXI. 


ELECTRICITY. 

[Continued.] 

IV.  —  EFFECTS    PRODUCED    BY    ELECTRICITY    WHEN    IN 
MOTION. 

UNDER  this  head  are  to  be  classed  by  far  the  most 
striking  and  powerful  of  the  effects  of  this  mysterious 
agent.  When  the  fluid  is  in  its  natural  state  of  diffusion 
over  all  bodies,  it  is,  as  we  have  seen,  apparently  inert 
and  powerless,  though  we  must  suppose  that  it  exerts 
some  very  important,  though  secret  ajrency  in  those  si- 
lent processes,  by  which  the  course  of  nature  is  main- 
tained. When  the  fluid  is  accumulated,  so  as  to  exist 
in  bodies  in  unnatural  quantities,  or  in  an  unnatural  state, 
while  it  is  kept  in  this  state,  it  produces  only  the  gentle 
effects  of  attraction  and  repulsion  which  have  been  al- 
ready described.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  all  those  ex- 
periments on  electrical  attraction  and  repulsion,  a  motion 
of  the  fluid  is  alluded  to,  as  a  consequence  of  the  ar- 
rangement of  the  apparatus,  yet  the  attraction  and  repul- 
sion are  in  all  those  cases,  anterior  to  the  motion  of  the 
fluid,  and  consequently  are  properly  to  be  considered  as 
effects  producediby  the  electricity  while  at  rest.  For  ex- 
ample, in  the  case  of  the  electrical  spider,  the  little  ani- 
mal is  attracted  by  the  knob  of  the  jar,  while  the  fluid  in 
the  knob  is  at  rest ;  —  it  approaches  in  consequence  of 
the  attraction,  and,  on  coming  into  contact,  a  portion  of 
the  electricity  passes  from  the  knob  and  enters  the  spi- 
der. Here  is  motion,  and  immediately  after  it,  the  bo- 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xxi.         44 


498  ELECTRICITY. 


dies  are  placed  in  a  very  different  state  from  before. 
Both  are  now  similarly  electrified,  and  the  fluids  come 
again  to  a  state  of  rest.  While  in  this  second  state  of 
rest  a  new  effect,  viz.  repulsion,  takes  place.  Thus  it  is 
manifest  that  though  a  motion  of  the  electric  fluid  at- 
tends the  attraction  and  repulsion,  still  these  effects  are, 
strictly  speaking,  produced  by  the  fluid  while  in  a  slate 
of  rest. 

We  come,  however,  now  to  specify  phenomena,  which 
occur  during  the  very  instant  of  motion  of  the  electric 
fluid. 

And  here  it  must  be  observed  that  whenever  a  body  is 
electrified  in  any  way,  there  must  be  somewhere  in  its 
vicinity,  other  bodies  electrified  in  an  opposite  way,  — 
and  to  exactly  the  same  amount.  For  example,  electri- 
fy vitreously  a  ball  of  brass;  i.  e.  drive  off  its  own  resi- 
nous electricity,  and  bring  to  it  an  equal  amount  of  vitre- 
ous fluid.  Now  the  resinous  electricity  which  has  been 
expelled  must  be  existing  somewhere  in  the  neighboring 
bodies,  seeking  to  return,  —  and  the  vitreous  electricity 
which  has  been  brought  to  the  body,  must  have  left  a  de- 
ficiency in  the  surrounding  bodies,  to  supply  which,  the 
accumulating  fluid  must  be  endeavoring  to  escape,  so 
that  whenever  a  body  is  electrified  by  having  a  surplus  of 
vitreous  and  a  deficiency  of  resinous  fluid,  the  surround- 
ing bodies  will  be  electrified  of  course,  in  the  opposite 
way,  that  is,  by  having  a  deficiency  of  vitreous  and  a 
surplus  of  resinous  electricity.  The  two  surpluses  then 
will  have  a  strong  tendency  to  dart  across  the  interven- 
ing space,  to  supply  the  two  deficiencies,  and  thus  re- 
store the  bodies  to  their  natural  state. 

The  same  is  evidently  true  if  we  consider  the  theory 
of  Franklin,  already  alluded  to,  as  the  more  probable  hy- 
pothesis. In  his  view  of  the  subject,  supposing  only  one 
fluid,  it  is  plain  that  the  accumulation  of  that  in  the 
brass  ball  must  bo  at  the  expense  of  the  surrounding  bo- 
dies, so  that  if  the  ball  is  positive,  there  must  be  an 
equal  amount  of  negative  electricity  in  the  vicinity,  and 
the  tendency  of  the  ball  to  discharge  itself,  is  merely  a 
tendency  of  the  surplus  fluid  contained  in  it,  to  go  back 
and  supply  the  deficiency  in  other  bodies,  which  its  ac- 
cumulation in  the  ball  creates. 


ELECTRICITY. 


It  must,  therefore,  be  constantly  borne  in  mind,  that, 
to  discharge  any  electrified  body,  we  must  form  a  com- 
munication between  it,  and  the  other  bodies  electrified  in 
an  opposite  manner,  and  we  have  been  thus  particular  in 
explaining  the  cause  of  this,  because  ignorance  or  forget- 
fulness  of  this  principle,  is  the  source  of  a  vast  number 
of  mistakes  among  young  persons,  who  are  attempting 
electrical  experiments. 

The  surrounding  bodies  which  will  be  oppositely  elec- 
trified, as  above  described,  are  generally  the  nearest. 
Suppose  a  cloud  to  be  positively  electrified,  and  to  be 
suspended  over  a  particular  region  of  the  earth.  This 
region  we  will  imagine  to  be  electrified  in, an  opposite 
manner.  Now  let  the  cloud  move  over  a  fresh  portion ; 
by  its  repulsive  power  it  will  force  off  from  this  new  re- 
gion, the  share  of  electricity  which  naturally  belongs  to 
it,  into  the  vacancy  which  existed  in  the  region  over 
which  it  originally  stood,  and  thus,  whenever  it  moves, 
the  opposite  electricity  of  the  surrounding  bodies  will 
accompany  it,  and  the  fluid  will  always  be  seeking  to 
dart  off  from  the  place  of  its  excess  in  the  cloud  to  the 
place  off  its  deficiency  in  the  ground  below.  And  it  is 
only  by  a  communication  from  one  of  these  to  the  other, 
that  the  cloud  can  be  discharged. 

In  the  case  of  the  prime  conductor,  the  same  is  true. 
When  it  is  charged,  the  experimenter  touches  it  with  his 
finger  and  it  is  discharged.  His  own  body  and  other 
surrounding  bodies  connected  with  his,  were  in  the  op- 
posite electrical  state,  to  an  extent  just  sufficient  to  bal- 
ance the  electricity  of  the  conductor.  By  touching  it 
then,  he  forms  a  communication  between  the  two,  the 
fluid  passes,  and  the  equilibrium  is  restored. 

In  the  Leyden  jar,  this  principle  of  the  necessity  of 
forming  a  communication  between  bodies  electrified  in 
an  opposite  manner,  in  order  to  discharge  them,  is  still 
more  strikingly  exemplified.  For  here  it  will  be  recol- 
lected, the  outside  of  the  jar  is  electrified  in  one  way 
and  the  inside  in  another,  as  was  stated  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  the  theory  of  the  jar.  The  very  object  of  its  con- 
struction is  to  bring  as  nearly  as  possible  together,  the 
surfaces  thus  brought  into  opposite  states.  In  order, 


500  ELECTRICITY. 


therefore,  to  discharge  the  jar  it  is  necessary  that  a  com- 
munication should  be  formed  between  the  inside  and  out- 
side. This  may  be  done  by  the  hands  of  the  experiment- 
er. He  grasps  with  one  the  external  coating,  and  with 
the  other  touches  the  knob,  connected  with  the  interior. 
The  communication  is  thus  completely  formed,  and  the 
fluid  will  pass  until  the  former  equilibrium  is  restored. 

Nothing  now  is  more  common  than  for  an  individual 
to  approach  a  charged  jar,  standing  upon  a  table,  and  to 
touch  its  knob,  without  forming  any  communication  with 
the  oittside.  Now  if  the  table  is  dry,  it  is  a  non-conduc- 
tor, and  of  course  though  the  fluid  may  pass  down  to 
the  floor,  through  the  body  of  the  experimenter,  it  can- 
not rise  through  the  table  to  the  outside  of  the  jar,  except 
in  very  small  quantities.  And  the  fluid  will  not  leave 
the  inside,  till  it  can,  by  this  means,  reach  the  outside. 
The  jar  will  consequently  be  but  very  slightly  discharg- 
ed. This  mistake  is  made  more  frequently  on  account 
of  the  fact,  that,  in  order  to  discharge  the  prime  conduc- 
tor, nothing  is  necessary  but  to  touch  it  with  one  hand. 
For  the  opposite  electricity  is  not,  as  in  the  Leyden  jar, 
situated  in  a  small  insulated  plate,  but  is  diffused  among 
all  the  surrounding  bodies,  as  the  floor,  the  ground,  &c  ; 
and  the  feet  of  the  operator  naturally  forms  a  communi- 
cation with  them.  So  that  by  simply  touching  the  con- 
ductor, a  communication  is  actually  formed,  —  whereas 
by  touching  the  knob  only  of  the  jar  it  is  not. 

For  the  purpose  of  discharging  a  Leyden  jar,  or  a 
combination  of  jars,  called  a  battery,  a  very  useful  in- 
strument is  employed  called  a  discharger.  It  consists 
simply  of  two  brass  wires,  united  at  one  end  by  a  hinge, 
and  having  knobs  on  the  other  .extremities.  The  arms 
may  be  opened  to  any  distance,  and  from  the  hinge  there 
proceeds  usually  a  glass  handle.  One  of  the  knobs  is 
now  brought  into  contact  with  the  outside  of  the  jar,  and 
the  other  with  the  inside,  and  the  communication  is  at 
once  formed. 

Having  thus  shown  what  are  the  circumstances  in 
which  a  motion  of  the  electric  fluid  takes  place,  we 
proceed  to  explain  the  nature  of  this  motion. 

jq--/i  ft!       );>RIW,-  r*jf»--tvrafi  HMfcj 


ELECTRICITY.  501 


1.  It  is  instantaneous. 

It  is  very  common  for  a  lecturer  upon  electricity,  af- 
ter explaining  fully  to  his  class  the  fact,  that  when  a 
communication  is  formed  between  the  inside  and  out- 
side of  the  jar,  the  fluid  passes  from  one  to  the  other, 
to  request  them  to  form  a  line  by  joining  hands, 
and  to  allow  the  charge  to  pass  through  them  all,  so  as 
to  observe  who  feels  the  etfect  soonest.  But  when  the 
line  is  formed,  and  one  extremity  is  connected  with  the 
outside  of  the  jar,  and  the  individual  who  stands  at  the 
other  extremity,  touches  the  knob  connected  with  the 
inside,  the  start  of  the  .whole  line  is  precisely  simulta- 
neous. At  college  this  experiment  is  sometimes  tried 
with  some  hundreds  of  students  arranged  in  a  long  line 
in  the  college  yard.  The  one  at  the  extremity  most 
remote  from  the  jar  takes  hold  of  a  chain  which,  sup- 
ported at  intervals,  returns  to  the  jar,  and  thus  the  fluid 
has  to  pass  through  a  distance  of  many  hundred  feet, 
but  no  perceptible  difference  of  time  is  to  be  observed. 

Another  interesting  way  of  exhibiting  the  instantane- 
ousness  of  the  motion  is  this.  A  wire  connected,  at 
one  end  with  the  outside  of  the  jar,  is  passed  around 
the  room,  by  fastening  it  against  the  wall,  so  that  at  last 
the  other  end  returns  near  to  the  table.  At  any  remote 
part  there  may  be  a  short  interruption,  across  which 
the  electricity  will  pass  by  a  visible  spark,  at  the  pre- 
cise instant  in  which  the  returning  end  of  the  wire  is 
connected  with  the  knob  of  the  jar. 

Some  English  philosophers  tried  this  experiment  on 
a  larger  scale  still.  They  extended  wires,  supported  by 
silken  strings  which  they  fastened  to  stakes  set  in  the 
ground,  several  miles  in  length.  The  discharge  was  ef- 
fected through  these,  and  not  the  slightest  difference  be- 
tween the  entrance  of  the  fluid  at  one  end  of  the  wire, 
and  its  return  through  the  other,  could  be  perceived, 
though  in  the  interval  it  must  have  passed  six  or  eight 
miles.  The  motion  of  electricity  may,  however,  be  pro- 
gressive, —  it  may  consume  time,  —  and  yet  not  be  per- 
ceptible in  so  short  a  distance.  Light  requires  time  to 
pass  across  any  space.  This  time  is  very  perceptible  in 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xxi.  44* 


502  ELECTRICITY. 


its  crossing  the  earth's  orbit,  but  in  going  ten  miles,  it 
would  occupy  only  the  two  millionth  part  of  a  second, 
—  a  period  altogether  imperceptible  to  man. 

The  following  extracts  from  the  Article  on  Electricity 
contained  in  the  English  Library  of  Useful  Knowledge, 
state  some  interesting  particulars  in  relation  to  this  part 
of  our  subject. 

'  By  accurate  experiments  it  appears  that  the  force  of 
the  electric  shock  is  weakened,  that  is,  its  effects  are  di- 
minished, by  employing  a  conductor  of  great  length  for 
making  the  discharge.  But  it  is  difficult  to  assign  a 
limit  to  the  number  of  persons  through  which  even  a 
small  charge  of  electricity  may  be  sent,  so  that  all  shall 
experience  the  shock ;  or  to  the  distance  along  which  it 
may  be  conveyed  by  good  conductors. 

'  At  an  early  period  of  electrical  inquiries,  much  in- 
terest was  attached  to  the  determination  of  these  points. 
The  Abbe  Nollet  passed  an  electrical  shock  from  a  small 
phial  through  a  hundred  and  eighty  of  the  French  guards 
in  the  presence  of  the  king ;  and  at  the  Carthusian  con- 
vent in  Paris,  the  monks  were  formed  into  a  line  above  a 
mile  in  length,  by  means  of  iron  wires  held  between 
them  ;  on  the  discharge  of  the  jar  the  sensation  was  felt 
at  the  same  moment  by  all  the  persons  composing  this 
vast  circuit.  Many  experiments  were  made  both  by  the 
English  and  French  electricians  with  a  view  to  ascertain 
the  space  which  a  discharge  can  be  made  to  traverse, 
and  the  velocity  with  which  it  is  transmitted.  Of  these 
the  most  ingenious  and  satisfactory  were  the  experiments 
planned  and  executed  by  Dr  Watson,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  leading  members  of  the  Royal  Society.  A  cir- 
cuit was  formed  by  a  wire  which  extended  the  whole 
length  of  Westminster  bridge,  at  a  considerable  height 
above  the  river;  one  end  of  this  wire  communicated  with 
the  outer  coating  of  a  charged  phial  or  jar,  the  other  be- 
ing held  by  a  person  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  river, 
who  formed  a  communication  with  the  water  by  dipping 
into  it  an  iron  rod  held  by  the  other  hand.  The  circuit 
was  completed  by  another  person,  who  stood  near  the 
phial,  and  who  likewise  dipped  an  iron  rod  into  the  river 
with  one  hand,  and  was  enabled  by  means  of  a  wire  held 


ELECTRICITY.  503 


in  the  other,  to  effect  a  contact  with  the  knob  of  the  phial. 
Whenever  the  discharges  took  place,  the  shocks  were 
felt  by  both  persons  :  thus  proving  that  the  electric  fluid 
must  have  been  in  motion  along  the  whole  line  of  the 
circuit,  including  both  the  wire  above  and  the  river 
below. 

*  In  another  experiment,  made  on  Shooter's  hill,  at  a 
time  when  the  ground  was  remarkably  dry,  the  electricity 
was  made  to  perform  a  circuit  of  four  miles ;  being  con- 
ducted for  two  miles  along  wires  supported  upon  baked 
sticks,  and  for  the  remaining  distance  also  of  two  miles, 
through  the  dry  ground.  As  far  as  could  be  ascertained, 
by  the  most  careful  observation,  the  time  in  which  the 
discharge  was  transmitted  along  that  immense  circuit 
was  perfectly  instantaneous  :  nor  has  any  other  trial  that 
has  yet  been  made  afforded  the  least  approach  to  a  mea- 
surement of  the  velocity  with  which  electiicity  moves. 

'On  this  subject,  however,  an  important  distinction 
should  be  made  between  the  actual  movement  of  each 
individual  particle  of  electric  fluid,  and  the  transmission 
of  an  impulse  along  a  series  of  such  particles,  for  the 
one  may  bear  hardly  any  proportion  to  the  other,  just  as 
we  find  that  sound  proceeds  with  a  velocity  incompara- 
bly greater  than  that  of  the  particles  of  air  which  are 
concerned  in  its  propagation.  In  like  manner  the  por- 
tion of  blood,  which  raises  the  artery  at  the  wrist,  where 
the  pulse  is  felt,  is  not  the  identical  portion  of  blood, 
which  is  thrown  out  from  the  heart  by  the  contraction  of 
that  organ  producing  that  pulsation  ;  the  impulse  in  all 
these  cases  being  propagated,  like  a  wave,  from  one  par- 
ticle to  another.  There  is,  therefore,  no  reason  to  sup- 
pose that  the  same  particles  of  electric  fluid,  which  en- 
ter at  one  part,  have  traversed  from  one  end  to  the  other 
the  whole  line  of  conducting  substances.' 

2.  It  always  chooses  the  best  conductors  which  are  in 
its  path. 

The  distinction  between  conductors  and  non-conduc- 
tors of  the  electric  fluid  has  been  already  explained. 
Some  substances  allow  the  passage  of  the  electric  fluid 
with  great  ease;  — others  with  greater  or  less  difficulty 


504  ELECTRICItV. 


The  former  are  called  conductors,  the  latter  non-conduc- 
tors. For  example,  let  a  man  grasp  the  outside  of  the 
Leyden  jar  with  one  hand,  and  with  the  other  touch  the 
knob  with  a  piece  of  wood,  and  only  a  small  portion  of 
the  electricity  will  pass.  Let  him  a  moment  afterwards 
touch  it  with  a  piece  of  metal,  and  he  will  receive  a  vio- 
lent shock.  The  whole  force  of  the  charge  will  pass 
suddenly  through  the  metal  into  his  hand. 

It  is  easy  to  determine  whether  any  substance  is  or  is 
not  a  conductor.  If  it  contains  anything  metallic  or 
moist,  it  is,  if  not,  it  is  a  non-conductor.  This  is  a  gen- 
eral, but  not  a  universal  rule.  Silk  and  glass  are  the 
most  commonly  used  as  non-conductors,  and  brass  or 
iron  as  conductors. 

The  tendency  of  electricity  to  choose,  as  it  were,  the 
best  conductors  may  be  shown  by  a  variety  of  experi- 
ments. Charge  a  Leyden  jar,  and  bring  into  contact 
with  the  outside  of  it,  a  wire,  and  a  rod  of  wood.  Let 
the  wire  pass  around  the  whole  room,  and  the  other  ex- 
tremity be  brought  near  the  knob.  Let  the  other  end  of 
wood  also  be  brought  to  the  same  distance  from  the 
knob,  and  then  bring  the  two  ends  nearer  and  nearer 
until  the  fluid  darts  across.  It  will  invariably  strike  the 
wire,  —  although  it  must,  by  so  doing,  pass  entirely  round 
the  room,  to  reach  its  destination. 

In  the  same  manner,  if  a  variety  of  objects  are  laia 
upon  a  table,  such  as  chains,  money,  pieces  of  glass,  &c. 
Some  of  whom  are  conductors  and  some  non-conductors, 
—  and  if  they  are  placed  almost  in  contact  with  each 
other,  and  so  arranged  that  there  is  one  way,  however 
crooked,  by  which  the  electricity  may  pass  across  the 
table  through  conductors  only,  —  except  the  very  short 
interruptions  between  them,  —  the  fluid  will  ^be  sure  to 
find  this  way.  If  one  end  of  the  table  is  connected  with 
the  inside,  and  the  other  with  the  outside,  —  the  fluid 
will  pass  across,  choosing  with  undeviating  certainty  the 
conductors,  and  those  alone. 

It  is  so  with  lightning.  It  darts  from  the  cloud  to  the 
earth,  choosing  the  best  conductors  in  its  way.  If  a  per- 
son stands  in  such  a  manner  as  to  be  one  of  such  a  se- 
ries of  conductors  — the  lightning  will  pass  through  him, 


ELECTRICITY.  505 


or  in  other  words,  he  will  be  struck.  Another  individual 
standing  at  the  distance  of  only  a  few  feet, —  but  out  of 
such  a  series,  will  be  safe.  This  subject  has  however 
been  more  fully  discussed  in  our  Tract  on  the  Weather. 

3.  It  produces  no  sensible  effects  when  passing  through 
conductors. 

Its  motion  is  instantaneous  as  was  before  shown,  at 
least  it  passes  with  inconceivable  velocity,  but  it  produces 
no  perceptible  effects,  when  it  passes  through  good  con- 
ductors. Let  a  large  wire  be  held  in  the  hand,  one 
end  touching  the  knob  connected  with  the  inside  of  a 
Leyden  jar,  and  then  let  an  assistant,  by  means  of  a  dis- 
charger, bring  the  other  end  into  connexion  with  the 
knob.  The  charge  will  immediately  pass  from  the  knob 
through  the  discharger  to  the  wire,  and  through  the  wire 
as  it  lies  in  the  hand  to  the  outside  of  the  jar.  Now, 
however  attentively  the  performer  may  examine  the  wire, 
at  the  instant  of  the  passing  of  the  discharge,  no  percep- 
tible effect  of  any  kind  can  be  observed.  There  is  no 
motion,  no  heat,  and  no  light,  and  the  hand  does  not 
feel  the  shock  in  the  slightest  degree. 

When,  however,  the  accumulated  fluid,  on  its  passage 
to  its  place  of  destination  finds  its  progress  interrupted, 
it  then  produces  its  most  marked  and  striking  effects. 
Some  of  these  we  shall  now  notice.  The  violence  of  the 
effect  is  proportioned  to  the  degree  of  interruption.  The 
air  is  a  non-conductor.  If  it  has,  therefore,  to  pass 
through  the  air  at  an  interruption  in  its  circuit,  the  most 
striking  of  its  effects  are  produced.  This  brings  us  then 
to  our  fourth  particular. 

4.  ElcdricSl  light. 

It  is  impossible  to  use  tHfeleclric  machine  at  all,  with- 
out perceiving  that  the  fluid  evolves  light  whenever  it 
passes  through  the  air.  The  jar  cannot  be  discharged 
without  producing  this  effect,  for  if  one  end  of  the  dis- 
charger is  brought  into  contact  with  the  outside,  and  the 
other  is  made  to  approach  the  knob,  before  it  touches  it, 
the  fluid  will  dart  across,  exhibiting  the  bright  light  which 
the  fluid  always  produces  when  passing  through  the  air. 


506  ELECTRICITY. 


The  appearance  of  this  spark  is  somewhat  peculiar. 
It  is  usually  of  bright  yellow  at  the  extremities,  and  blu- 
ish in  the  middle.  In  discharging  a  Leyden  jar,  it  is 
short  and  intense  in  brightness  ;  —  when  taken  from  a 
prime  conductor,  it  is  much  longer  and  fainter.  The 
length  of  the  spark  which  can  be  drawn  from  a  conduc- 
tor depends  upon  the  size  of  the  machine,  and  the  condi- 
tion which  it  is  in  at  the  time  of  the  experiment.  Sparks 
can  without  much  difficulty  be  obtained  several  inches  in 
length. 

If,  in  receiving  the  spark  from  the  conductor,  the 
operator,  instead  of  presenting  a  small  body  like  a  brass 
ball,  presents  a  large  fat  surface,  like  the  back  of  the 
band,  and  if  this  surface  is  held  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance, the  spark  at  a  little  distance  from  the  prime  con- 
ductor will  branch  off  into  many  beautiful  ramifications, 
presenting  in  the  night,  and  under  favorable  circum- 
stances, a  splendid  tree  of  fire.  The  size  and  beauty  of 
this  tree  will  depend  of  course  very  much  upon  the  ex- 
cellence of  the  machine,  and  the  circumstances  under 
which  the  experiment  is  made. 

This  tendency  of  the  electric  fluid  to  give  light  when- 
ever it  passes  through  the  air,  produces  many  other  re- 
markable appearances,  in  working  the  machine  in  the 
dark.  Long  sparks  dart  from  the  prime  conductor  to 
the  rubber.  Bright  lines  and  spots  of  light,  ornament 
the  under  surface  of  the  rubber,  —  and  flashes  and 
trees  of  flame  dart  from  side  to  side.  These  beautiful 
appearances  can  only  however  be  seen  when  the  cir- 
cumstances are  highly  favorable. 

There  are  many  cases  of  common  occurrence  in 
which  this  electric  light  appears.  It  is  common  for 
children  to  amuse  tUSms'elv^by  rubbing  the  back  of  a 
cat  in  the  dark,  to  oJBtervProe  sparks  thus  produced. 
These  are  electrical,  the  fur  of  the  cat  being  a  most 
excellent  electric.  A  silk  or  flannel  garment,  will  often 
when  taken  off  sparkle,  —  and  many  a  child,  has,  in  a 
cold  winter  night,  been  frightened  at  seeing  sparks  in 
his  bed,  as  he  opens  the  blankets.  The  Aurora  Borea- 
lis  is  generally  supposed,  though  without  much  direct 
proof,  to  be  an  electrical  effect. 


ELECTRICITY.  507 


There  are  many  beautiful  experiments  designed  to  ex- 
hibit in  a  striking  way  the  illuminating  power  of  elec- 
tricity. Some  of  these  we  shall  describe. 

The  spiral  tube.  This  consists  of  a  common  glass 
tube  with  little  circular  pieces  of  tin  foil  pasted  upon  it, 
so  as  to  be  as  near  each  other  as  possible  without  touch- 
ing. These  pieces  are  arranged  in  such  a  manner  that 
they  pass  round  the  tube  in  a  spiral  form,  one  end  of 
which  is  to  be  connected  with  the  prime  conductor. 
On  turning  the  machine  the  conductor  becomes  charg- 
ed, and  the  fluid  passes  off  through  these  discs  of  tinfoil, 
producing  a  spark  at  each  interruption ;  —  and  as  the 
passage  is  instantaneous,  the  appearance  is  that  of  a 
beautiful  spiral  line  of  light.  The  operator  sometimes 
endeavors  to  perform  this  experiment  by  means  of  the 
Leyden  jar.  It  is,  however,  a  remarkable  fact  which 
we  do  not  recollect  to  have  seen  noticed  in  any  treatise, 
that  very  many  of  the  experiments  with  electric  light, 
succeed  altogether  better  with  the  conductor  than  with 
the  jar.  The  conductor  gives  a  longer  spark,  and  the 
charge  from  it  forces  its  way  through  a  much  longer  se- 
ries of  interruptions. 

The  spiral  tube  prepared  as  above  described,  is  often 
inclosed  in  another  tube  a  little  larger,  so  that  the  tin- 
foil is  protected  from  injury.  Sometimes,  instead  of  a 
tube,  a  flat  plate  of  glass  is  used,  and  the  circles  of  tin- 
foil or  of  nheet  lead  are  pasted  upon  it  in  any  way  that 
fancy  may  direct.  The  interruptions  are  sometimes  so 
arranged  that  the  letters  of  a  word  are  pictured  in  light, 
—  or  a  profile,  —  or  a  rude  sketch  of  any  kind.  Some- 
times a  long  and  narrow  plate  of  glass  has  a  serpentine 
row  of  discs  of  tin  foil  upon  one  side,  while  th£  other  is 
painted  with  transparent  colors,  which  gives  to  the  light 
a  variety  of  hues. 

The  luminous  jar.  A  Leyden  jar  is  coated  with  de- 
tached pieces  of  tin  foil  coming  almost  into  contact  with 
each  other,  instead  of  having  the  ordinary  continuous 
covering.  While  this  is  charging,  sparks  will  be  seen 
darting  from  one  piece  of  the  tinfoil  to  another,  illumi- 
nating the  whole  surface  in  a  beautiful  manner. 

The  illumi'iaied  thumb.     If  two  wires  lying  upon  the 


508  ELECTRICITY. 


table,  be  brought  within  a  third  of  an  inch  of  each  other, 
and  the  thumb  is  pressed  upon  the  table  so  as  to  touch 
the  two  ends  of  the  wire,  and  to  cover  the  whole  place 
of  the  interruption,  and  a  strong  spark  be  passed  through 
the  apparatus  thus  arranged,  the  flesh  of  the  finger  will 
be  strongly  illuminated. 

The  electric  light  exhibited  in  these  various  experi- 
ments does  not  depend  at  all  upon  the  nature  of  the  sub- 
stance which  is  charged.  If  a  person  stands  upon  the 
insulating  stool  in  the  manner  before  described,  and  is 
charged,  sparks  may  be  drawn  from  his  hands,  his  face, 
or  any  part  of  the  body.  A  tumbler  of  water  or  a  mass 
of  ice,  may  be  charged,  and  sparks  taken  from  its  surfa- 
ces. It  is  the  simple  passage  of  the  electricity  through 
the  air,  which  produces. the  effect. 

Illuminated  water.  Although  water  is  classed  among 
conductors,  still  the  resistance  it  makes  to  the  passage  of 
the  electricity  is  such,  that  when  it  is  made  a  part  of  the 
circuit,  a  very  distinct  light  is  evolved.  A  moderate 
charge  will  produce  a  bright  spark  when  made  to  pass 
.through  water,  and  the  spark  is  still  more  luminous  in 
oil,  alcohol,  or  ether,  which  are  worse  conductors  than 
watejfijton  the  contrary,  in  fluids  of  greater  conducting 
power^there  is  greater  difficulty  in  eliciting  electric  light. 
Thus  a  much  higher  charge  is  required  to  produce  a 
spark  in  hot  water  than  in  cold  ;  a  still  higher  in  saline 
solutions;  and  in  concentrated  acids  light  can  be  obtain- 
ed only  when  their  volume  is  very  small  ;  so  that  it  is 
necessary  for  that  purpose  to  draw  aline  of  the  acid  upon 
a  plate  of  glass  with  a  camel's  hair  pencil.  This  is  il- 
lustrated by  the  following  experiment.  Draw  a  line  with 
a  pen  dipped  in.  water  efi -tbj|L  surface  of  a  slip  of  glass; 
place  one  extremity  of  tho^pqie  'n  contact  with  the  coat- 
ihg  of  4  Leyden  jar,  and  al  six  inches'  distance  place 
upon  the  line  one  knob  of  the  discharging  rod.  When 
the  jar  is  fully  charged,  bring  the. other  ball  of  the  dis- 
charged to  the  knob  of  the  jar,  and  the  discharge  will 
take  place  luminously  over  the  six  inches  of  water.  Next, 
trace  a  line  with  a  pe/i  dipped  in  sulphuric  acid  on  a 
slip  of  glass,  as  in  the  former  experiment,  and  place  one 
extremity  of  it  in  contact  with  the  outside  of  the  jar ;  the 


ELECTRICITY.  509 


ball  of  the  discharger  may  then  be  placed  on  the  glass  at 
twelve  inches'  distance,  and  the  electric  fluid  will  pass  as 
brilliantly  over  that  interval  as  over  the  six  inches  of  wa- 
ter. In  either  of  these  experiments  if  the  line  of  fluid 
be  wider  in  any  particular  part,  the  light  of  the  discharge 
will  be  less  brilliant  in  passing  that  portion. 

5.  Electrical  heat. 

The  electrical  spark  developes  heat  as  well  as  light,  as 
may  be  shown  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  Some  experi- 
ments for  this  purpose  we  shall  enumerate. 

Inflaming  combustibles.  Sprinkle  upon  a  light  tuft  of 
cotton  a  quantity  of  powdered  resin,  and  shake  the  cot- 
ton until  the  resin  has  penetrated  it  in  every  part.  Bring 
then  two  wires  with  rounded  ends,  very  near  each  other, 
but  with  the  cotton  between.  Pass  now  a  strong  spark 
from  the  Leyden  jar  through  the  cotton,  and  it  will  burst 
into  a  flame. 

Pour  into  a  metallic  cup  attached  to  the  prime  conduc- 
tor, a  little  elher  or  alcohol,  and  then  when  the  conduc- 
tor is  charged,  draw  a  bright  spark  from  the  centre  of  the 
surface  of  the  liquid.  It  will  be  immediately  inflamed. 
Sometimes  the  experiment  is  made  in  another  form.  In- 
stead of  the  cup  attached  to  the  conductor,  a  person 
standing  upon  the  insulating  stool,  holds  an  iron  spoon 
containing  the  alcohol  or  ether,  and  a  bystander  takes 
the  spark  from  it  by  means  of  a  brass  ball,  or  his  knuckle, 
or  even  a  piece  of  ice. 

Detonating  mixtures  of  gases,  —  especially  hydrogen 
gas  and  atmospheric  air,  —  may  be  fired  by  means  of 
electricity.  Sometimes  they  are  contained  in  a  strong 
glass  vessel,  with  two  wirag  coming  on  the  inside  within 
a  short  distance  of  each  other.  Sometimes  a  little  brass 
cannon  is  used,  loaded  with  the  explosive  gases,  and  the 
muzzle  stopped  with  a  cork,  —  the  said  cork  being  thrown 
with  considerable  force  among  the  bystanders  by  the  dis- 
charge, to  the  no  small  amusement  of  such  of  them  as  do 
not  chance  to  be  shot. 

Gunpowder  may  be  fired  by  the  electric  spark,  under 
favorable  circumstances.  In  all  cases  the  combustible  to 
be  inflamed  should  be  previously  warmed. 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xxi.  45 


510  ELECTRICITY. 


Metling  metals.  It  has  before  been  observed  that  the 
electric  fluid  produces  no  sensible  effect  when  passing 
through  conductors.  If,  however,  the  conductor  is  so 
slender  that  only  a  part  of  the  fluid  can  pass  upon  it,  the 
rest,  surrounding  it,  but  passing  through  the  air,  gives  out 
light  and  heat.  By  this  heat  a  narrow  strip  of  gold  or 
silver  leaf — a  slender,  thread-like  cutting  of  tinfoil, — 
or  even  a  very  fine  wire,  may  be  melted  by  passing  a 
strong  charge  from  a  battery  through  them. 

The  degree  of  heat  which  is  evolved  by  the  passage 
of  electricity  through  any  substance,  depends  upon  the 
degree  of  resistance  which  the  substance  opposes.  The 
more  perfect  the  conductor  the  less  the  heat.  If  the  me- 
tal is  one  of  those  which  are  the  most  perfect  conductors, 
it  will  require  a  larger  charge  to  produce  a  sensible  ef- 
fect in  warming  it.  Wood  is  a  very  imperfect  conduc- 
tor, —  consequently  a  small  quantity  of  electricity  will 
affect  its  temperature,  and  a  piece  of  considerable  thick- 
ness may  be  warmed  by  repeated  discharges. 

In  consequence  of  this  fact,  that  the  conducting  power 
of  the  metal  upon  which  the  experiment  is  tried,  influ- 
ences very  much  the  degree  of  heat  evolved  by  the  trans- 
mission of  electricity  through  it,  some  philosophers  have 
endeavored  to  ascertain  the  different  conducting  powers 
of  the  metals,  by  observing  the  comparative  difficulty 
with  which  they  are  melted  by  electricity.  The  experi- 
ments may  be  performed  in  the  following  way. 

Connect  with  the  outside  coating  of  a  battery,  which, 
in  order  to  secure  the  success  of  the  experiment,  should 
contain  at  least  thirty  square  feet  of  coated  surface,  a 
wire  of  one  fiftieth  of  an  inch  in  diameter,  and  two  feet 
long.  With  a  smaller  batteryf  the  experiment  will  suc- 
ceed, if  the  experimenter  is  satisfied  with  a  shorter  or 
slenderer  wire.  The  other  end  of  the  wire  must  be  fas- 
tened to  the  end  of  a  discharging  rod.  When  the  bat- 
tery is  fully  charged,  the  ball  of  the  discharger  may  be 
brought  into  connexion  with  the  knob  communicating 
with  the  outside  of  the  battery,  and  thus  the  whole  charge 
will  be  sent  through  the  wire,  which  will  be  made  red 
hot  through  its  whole  extent,  and  even  melted  so  as  to 
fall  in  glowing  pieces  to  the  floor.  '  When  a  wire 


ELECTR1CITV. 


511 


melted  in  this  manner,  sparks  are  frequently  seen  at  con- 
siderable distance  from  it,  which  are  red  hot  particles  of 
the  metal,  that  by  the  violence  of  the  explosion,  are 
thrown  in  all  directions.  If  the  force  of  the  battery  be 
very  great,  the  wire  will  be  entirely  dispersed  by  the  ex- 
plosion so  that  none  of  it  can  afterwards  be  found.' 

By  repeating  this  experiment  with  wires  of  different 
metals,  and  using  the  same  quantity  of  electrical  power, 
that  is,  by  using  the  same  battery  and  charging  it  to  the 
same  degree  of  intensity,  it  will  be  found  that  some  me- 
tals are  fused  more  readily  than  others,  whilst  some  are 
not  sensibly  affected.  This  shows  the  difference  of  their 
conducting  powers.  Some  are  melted  instantaneously 
through  their  whole  length,  and  entirely  dispersed  by  the 
force  of  the  explosion.  Others  merely  melt  and  drop  in 
globules.  Others  still,  become  red  hot  —  or  are  even 
only  heated  at  the  ends.  An  electrician  once  had  a 
number  of  wires  prepared  of  various  metals,  —  all  of  the 
same  diameter,  one  thirtysecond  of  an  inch.  He  used  a 
very  large  electrical  machine,  to  which  was  attached  a 
battery  containing  225  feet  of  coated  surface.  The  wires 
were  of  equal  lengths,  and  the  battery  charged  to  the 
same  degree  of  intensity  in  all  the  experiments.  The 
following  was  the  result.  Of  the  leaden  wire  120  inches 
were  melted  ;  —  of  fin  the  same.  Iron  wire  only  five  in- 
ches;—  gold  wire  three  inches  and  a  half.  Silver,  cop- 
per and  brass  wire,  only  one  quarter  of  an  inch. 

Some  writers  on  electricity  have  considered  these  ex- 
periments as  showing  directly  the  conducting  powers  of 
these  metals, — -  supposing  them  to  be  inversely  as  the 
fusibility.  It  seem  more  probable  that  the  conducting 
power  is  inversely  as  the  heat  produced,  and  as  it  re- 
quires much  less  heat  to  fuse  lead  than  brass,  the  lead, 
even  if  an  equally  good  conductor,  would  be  much  more 
easily  fused. 

The  philosopher  above  alluded  to,  had  the  curiosity  to 
try  the  experiment  of  fusing  these  metals  under  water, 
—  and  the  plan  succeeded.  It  was  necessary,  however, 
to  use  much  shorter  wires.  The  same  discharge  would 
generally  melt  one  eighth  part  as  much  wire  under  water, 
as  in  the  open  air. 


512  ELECTRICITY. 


The  most  suitable  substances  upon  which  to  make  ex- 
periments on  the  fusibility  of  metals  with  small  machines, 
are  gold,  silver  or  brass  leaf,  —  or  even  tin  foil  cut  into 
very  slender  strips,  —  or  a  very  fine  flattened  steel  wire, 
used  by  watchmakers,  called  watch  pendulum  wire.  By 
means  of  either  of  these,  fusion  may  often  be  produced 
by  a  common  machine  and  by  a  single  Leyden  jar. 

If  eat  evolved  by  lightning.  The  power  of  those  im- 
mense charges  of  electricity  which  descend  from  the 
clouds,  to  inflame  combustibles  and  fuse  metals  is  a  mat- 
ter of  common  observation.  Small  pieces  of  iron,  i.  e. 
too  small  for  the  whole  quantity  of  the  fluid  to  pass  them, 
are  melted.  It  must  be  borne  constantly  in  mind  that 
this  heat  is  developed  only  when  the  conducting  sub- 
stances are  not  sufficient  to  convey  off  the  electricity 
freely  to  the  ground.  There  is  no  evidence  that  a  com- 
mon lightning  lod,  down  which  the  electricity  passes 
freely,  becomes  in  the  least  degree  warmed  by  its  power. 
The  points,  however,  at  the  top,  are  frequently  fused. 

A  house  was  once  struck  with  lightning,  and  a  pair  of 
tongs  which  were  standing  up  against  the  fireplace  were 
thrown  down.  A  person  standing  in  the  room,  who  for- 
tunately was  not  injured  by  the  shock,  almost  immedi- 
ately took  them  up,  and  on  examining  them  was  surpris- 
ed to  find,  that  although  the  iron  was  cold  as  usual  to 
the  touch,  yet  at  the  two  extremities  of  the  tongs,  — ap- 
parently at  the  places  where  the  fluid  entered,  and  left, 
—  there  were  two  small  melted  spots.  The  iron  was  very 
distinctly  and  evidently  fused  —  and  the  individual  was 
much  surprised  that  the  heat  should  be  so  great  as  to 
melt  the  iron  in  any  part,  and  yet  not  to  heat  it  through- 
out so  as  to  render  its  warmth  sensible  to  the  hand.  But 
the  fact  is  that  the  electric  fluid  is  not,  as  many  suppose, 
hot  itself.  It  produces  heat,  when  passing  through  the 
air.  It  will  do  this  when  coming  out  of  ice,  as  well  as 
when  coming  from  a  metal  ;  and  in  the  case  above  de- 
scribed, the  electric  fluid,  developed  heat  in  coming 
through  the  air  to  the  tongs,  and  in  passing  through  the 
air  from  the  tongs,  in  sufficient  quantities  to  fuse  the  me- 
tal at  the  points  where  it  entered,  and  where  it  left. 

•fit-          .ixz    <>*—-. i    JOT 


ELECTRICITV.  513 


6.  Influence  of  balls  and  points. 

It  has  before  been  stated  under  (he  head  Distribution  of 
Electricity,  that  the  fluid  accumulates  itself  in  a  state  of 
great  intensity  at  the  pointed  extremities  of  a  charged 
body,  where  it  passes  off  in  continued  streams.  On  this 
account  a  body  containing  any  sharp  or  pointed  parts, 
can  with  great  difficulty  be  charged  with  electricity. 

On  the  other  hand  if  a  body  with  all  its  extremities 
properly  rounded,  is  charged  and  brought,  when  in  that 
state,  into  the  vicinity  of  any  pointed  bodies,  its  electrici- 
ty is  immediately  and  rapidly  drawn  off.  So  marked  and 
powerful  is  this  effect  that  the  greatest  care  is  necessary, 
or  the  successful  operation  of  the  machine  will  be  entire- 
ly prevented  by  the  accidental  presence  of  pointed  sub- 
stances in  the  vicinity.  To  avoid  this  every  part  of  the 
machine  and  of  the  apparatus  about  it,  should  be  round- 
ed,—  every  wire  should  be  terminated  by  a  ball,  —  no 
roughness  or  raggedness  of  any  kind  should  be  left, — 
all  dust  should  be  removed,  and  every  sharp  or  pointed 
body  should  be  taken  away  from  the  vicinity.  A  sharp 
needle,  held  at  the  distance  of  several  feet  from  the  prime 
conductor,  will  often  effectually  prevent  its  being  charg- 
ed. There  are  various  distinct  experiments  by  which 
this  influence  of  points  may  be  strikingly  shown. 

1.  Attempt  to  charge  the  prime   conductor  and  while 
doing  so   hold  at  a  little   distance  from   it  a  needle   with 
the  point   towards  it.     The  effort  to  charge  the  conduc- 
tor will  be  vain,  —  the  electricity  will  pass  off  to  the  point 
as  fast  as  it  enters   the  conductor,  and  in  the  dark,  a  lu- 
minous star  will  be  seen  Upon  the  point  of  the  needle. 

2.  After  the  jar  is  charged  bring  a  brass  ball  to  it,  and 
observe  the  size  of  the  spark.     Then  charge  it  again  and 
attempt  to  obtain  a  similar  spark  by  means  of  a  poinltd 
body.     The  result  will  be  that  the  electricity  will  pass  to 
the  point   silently,   before   it  comes  near  enough   for  the 
spark. 

3.  The  discharger,  heretofore   described,   is   usually 
made   with  balls  at  the  extremities,   so  constructed  that 
they  may   be  unscrewed,  leaving  the  extremities  of  the 
wire  pointed.     If  now  the  jar  be  charged,  and  then  dis- 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xxi.         45* 


514  ELECTRICITY. 


charged  in  the  ordinary  way  by  using  the  balls  of  the  dis- 
charger, a  bright  spark  will  pass.  Unscrew  then  one  of 
the  balls,  —  charge  the  jar  again,  and  attempt  to  dis- 
charge it  by  bringing  up  the  point  to  the  knob  of  the  jar. 
It  will  be  found  that  the  rapid  passing  off  of  the  electrici- 
ty through  the  point,  will  prevent  any  spark. 

4.  'Take  a  small  lock  of  cotton,  extend  it  in  every  di- 
rection as  much  as  may  be  practicable,  and  by  means  of 
a  linen  thread,   about  five  or  six  inches  long,  or  by  a 
thread  drawn  out  of  the  same  cotton,  tie  it  to  the  end  of 
the  prime  conductor ;  then  let  the  electrical  machine  be 
put  in  action,  and  the  lock  of  cotton,  on  being  electrified, 
will  immediately  swell  out,  by  repelling  its  filaments  from 
each  other,   and  will  stretch  itself  towards  the  nearest 
conductor.     In  this  situation,  the  machine  continuing  in 
action,  present  the  end  of  a  finger,  or  the  knob  of  a  wire, 
towards  the  lock  of  cotton,  and  this  will  then  immediate- 
ly move  towards  the  finger,  endeavoring  to  touch  it.   But 
take  a  sharp  pointed  needle  in  the  other  hand,  and  pre- 
sent its  points  towards  the  cotton,  a  little  above  the  end 
of  the  above-mentioned  finger,  and  you  will  find  that  the 
cotton  immediately  shrinks  upwards,  and  moves  towards 
the  prime  conductor.     Remove  the  needle,  and  the  cot- 
ton will   corne   again   towards  the  finger.     Present  the 
needle,  and  the  cotton  will  shrink  again ;  which  clearly 
shows  that  the  needle,  being  sharp  pointed,  draws  off  the 
electric  fluid  from  the  cotton,  and  puts  it  in  a  state  of  be- 
ing attracted  by  the  prime  conductor ;  which  effect  can- 
not be  produced   by  a  wire  having  a  blunted   end,  or  a 
round  ball  for  its  termination.' 

5.  Lightning  ruds.     The  philosophy  of  lightning  rods 
is  very  evident  from  the  foregoing  remarks.     The  rod  it- 
self forms  a  conductor  from  the   top  of  the  house  to  the 
ground,  and  by   being  terminated  above  by  sharp  points, 
the  electricity  of  the  cloud  is  drawn  off  silently.      When- 
ever  a  thunder  cloud  passes  a  house  which   has  a  light- 
ning rod,  the  fluid  passes  down   the  rod  constantly  in  a 
silent  and  harmless  stream.     So  great  is  this  effect,  that 
it  is  aaiil  that  HI  a  large  city  like  London  where  there  are 
many  lightning  rods,  the  thunder  showers  lose  half  their 
violence.      When  the  cloud,  which,  as  it  passes  over  the 


ELECTRICITY.  515 

fields  and  forests,  sends  forth  its  thunderings  and  light- 
nings incessantly,  comes  over  the  pointed  rods  of  the 
city,  its  charge  is  drawn  off,  almost  as  rapidly  as  it  gath- 
ers,—  the  flashes  are  less  frequent  and  less  vivid,  and 
everything  indicates  the  mitigation  of  the  storm. 

If  a  point  proceeds  from  any  electrified  body,  there  is 
always  to  be  observed  issuing  from  it  a  current  of  air. 
This  is  the  case  whichever  way  the  body  is  electrified. 
Let  a  sharp  point  be  attached  to  the  prime  conductor, 
and  then  '  present  the  face,  or  the  palm  of  the  hand,  to 
the  point  at  the  distance  of  about  three  inches,  and  a 
wind  will  be  perceived  to  proceed  from  it. 

'  Fasten  five  or  six  pieces  of  paper  to  a  cork,  like  the 
leaves  of  a  water  wheel  in  hydraulics;  pass  a  needle,  by 
way  of  an  axis,  through  the  cork,  and  suspend  it  by  ap- 
plying the  end  of  the  needle  to  a  magnet.  Let  a  point- 
ed wire  be  fixed  at  the  end  of  the  prime  conductor,  and 
present  the  paper  vanes  of  the  cork  suspended,  Sec,  to 
the  current  of  air  which  proceeds  from  that  point,  when 
the  machine  is  in  action  ;  and  ihe  force  of  that  wind  wjll 
cause  the  cork  to  turn  round. 

'  This  current  of  air  always  proceeds  from  the  point, 
whether  the  point  be  electrified  positively  or  negatively  : 
therefore  it  is  not  the  influx  or  the  elllux  of  the  electric 
fluid  that  occasions  the  wind ;  but  it  is  owing  to  the  par- 
ticles of  air  which,  acquiring  the  same  electricity  as  the 
pointed  wire,  are  repelled  from  it  in  virtue  of  the  repul- 
sion which  takes  place  between  bodies  possessed  of  the 
same  kind  of  electricity,  be  it  positive  or  negative.  Other 
particles  of  air  succeed  those  which  are  repelled  first, 
and  these  being  electrified  are  also  repelled,  and  soon. 

'  When  the  wire,  instead  of  a  pointed  termination,  is 
furnished  with  a  ball  of  about  an  inch  and  a  quarter  in 
diameter,  a  curious  phenomenon  may  be  observed,  by 
presenting  the  flame  of  a  candle  to  it,  viz.  so  that  the 
middle  of  the  flame  may  be  even  with  the  middle  of  the 
ball.  The  machine  being  put  in  action,  it  will  be  found 
that  the  flame  is  blown  from  the  ball,  when  the  latter  is 
electrified  positively,  viz.  when  it  is  connected  with  the 
rubber  of  the  machine,  or  with  a  negative  prime  conduc- 
tor;  which  seems  to  show  the  real  influx  and  efflux  of 
the  electric  fluid,  according  to  the  Franklinian  theory.' 


516  ELECTRICITY. 


7.    Mechanical  effects  of  electricity. 

Whenever  a  large  charge  of  the  electric  fluid  passes 
through  or  among  bodies  of  very  little  conducting  pow- 
er, it  seems  to  exert  no  little  mechanical  force  in  prelbra- 
ting,  rupturing,  or  dispersing  them.  These  experiments 
may  be  performed  in  a  variety  of  ways. 

Perforating  paper.  Let  a  card  of  ordinary  thickness, 
be  laid  upon  the  table,  with  a  piece  of  tin  foilunder  it, 
one  end  of  which  is  connected  with  the  outside  of  the 
Leyden  jar.  Place  one  knob  of  the  discharger,  on  the 
top  of  the  card,  and  bring  the  other  into  contact  with 
the  knob  or  inside  of  the  jar.  In  this  way  the  spark,  if 
it  passes  at  all.  will  pass  through  the  paper,  and  on  ex- 
amining it,  a  small  perforation  will  be  found  to  be  made, 

—  and  if  the  charge  is  great  several  perforations. 
There  is  something  very  singular  in  the  appearance  of 

these  perforations.     The  paper  is  protruded  on  both  sides, 

—  forming  a  sort  of  double   bur,  one  looking   down  to- 
wards  the  tinfoil,  and  the  other  up  towards  the  knob  of 
the  discharger.     In  former  times  when  the  controversy 
between  the  supporters  of  the  two  theories,  —  those  of 
Franklin  and  Du    Faye,  —  was  going   on,  this   experi- 
ment was  considered  by  many  as  very  decisive  proof  of 
the  opposite  motion  of  two  fluids.     It  seems,  however, 
not  probable  that  the  protrusion  of  the  paper  is  owing  to 
the  mechanical  impetus  of  the   two  fluids,  but  to  the 
very  violent  and  sudden  rarifaction  of  the  air  contain- 
ed in  the  substance  of  the  paper,  which  by  the  explo- 
sive force  thus  given  it,  forces  the  parts  of  the  paper  out 
each  way. 

This  experiment  may  be  varied  by  using  not  a  card, 
but  several  sheets  of  paper,  a  quire,  or  twenty  or  thirty 
leaves  of  a  book.  The  effect  will  be  precisely  analogous. 
The  separate  leaves  will  be  protruded  from  the  middle 
sheet  outwards,  each  way. 

Perforation  of  glass.  If  instead  of  a  sheet  of  paper 
a  thin  plate  of  gla.ss  be  used,  it  will  be  shivered  to  frag- 
ments at  the  spot  where  the  electricity  passes,  perhaps, 
however,  without  falling  to  pieces.  In  one  small  s|K>t 
the  glass  will  be  completely  pulverized,  and  from  that 
spot  cracks  will  radiate  to  a  greater  or  less  distance  ac- 


ELECTRICITY.  517 


cording  to  the  force  of  the  discharge.  The  most  com- 
mon case  in  which  this  effect  is  seen  is  in  what  is  call- 
ed the  spontaneous  discharge  of  a  Leyden  jar.  When 
a  jar  formed  of  thin  glass,  is  very  highly  charged  it 
sometimes  discharges  itself  through  the  glass  itselt',  pro- 
ducing the  appearances  above  described,  with  this  addi- 
tion, however,  that  the  tinfoil  is  protruded,  both  on  the 
inside  and  outside,  forming  in  both  cases  a  large  and 
conspicuous  bur.  This  result  seems  to  conlirm  the 
opinion  stated  above,  that  these  protrusions  are  owing 
to  the  explosive  force  of  highly  rarified  air,  or  to  some 
similar  cause,  rather  than  to  the  impetus  of  the  fluid,  for 
the  glass,  at  the  plar.e  of  fracture,  is  completely  pulver- 
ized, but  it  is  not  displaced,  yet  the  tinfoil  is  displaced, 
there  being  between  it  and  the  glass  a  quantity  of  air 
mingled  with  the  paste  or  other  cementing  substance. 

'  The  expansion  of  air  by  the  passage  of  the  electri- 
cal fluid,  either  in  the  form  of  sparks  or  shocks,  is  shown 
in  the  following  experiment  of  Kinnersley,  the  appara- 
tus for  which  has  been  called  the  electrical  air  thermom- 
eter. It  consists,  of  a  glass  tube  closed  at  both  ends  by 
air-tight  brass  caps,  through  which  two  wires  slide  in 
the  direction  of  the  axis  of  the  tube.  These  wires  are 
terminated  by  brass  balls,  which  are  made  to  approach 
within  the  striking  distance.  To  an  aperture  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  lower  cap,  is  fitted  a  bent  tube  of  glass  which 
turns  upwards,  and  is  open  at  both  ends ;  the  bent  part 
is  tilled  with  mercury,  or  with  a  colored  fluid,  which  may 
indicate  by  its  rising  or  falling  in  the  tube,  any  dilata- 
tion or  contraction  that  may  take  place  in  the  air 
within  the  vessel.  It  is  found  that  every  time  a  spark 
passes  between  the  brass  balls,  the  fluid  suddenly  rises, 
but  descends  again  to  its  former  level  immediately  after 
each  explosion  ;  thus  showing  that  the  dilatation  of  the 
air,  produced  by  the  abrupt  passage  of  electricity,  is  but 
of  momentary  duration. 

'  When  a  strong  electrical  charge  is  sent  through  a 
very  confined  portion  of  air,  the  explosive  effects  produc- 
ed by  it,  are  as  considerable  as  those  we  have  seen  ex- 
hibited by  denser  fluids.  Thus  if  a  piece  of  plate  glass, 
of  the  size  of  a  square  inch,  and  half  an  inch  in  thjck- 


518 


ness,  be  laid  flat  upon  a  table,  and  pressed  down  by  a 
weight,  and  the  points  of  the  wires  be  set  opposite  to  each 
other  and  against  the  under  edge  of  the  glass,  so  that  the 
electricity  may  pass  beneath  it,  the  charge  of  a  large  jar 
transmitted  in  this  way  will  break  the  glass  into  innu- 
merable fragments,  and  even  reduce  a  portion  into  an 
impalpable  powder.  If  the  mouth  of  a  small  mortar 
made  of  ivory,  with  a  cavity  of  half  an  inch  diameter, 
and  an  inch  deep,  stopped  by  a  cork,  fitted  so  as  to  close 
the  aperture  accurately,  yet  without  much  friction,  and 
if  two  wires  be  inserted  through  the  sides  of  the  mortar 
so  that  their  points  within  the  cavity,  be  separated  by  an 
interval  of  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  a  strong  charge 
being  sent  through  the  wires  will  expand  the  air  within 
the  cavity  so  suddenly  as  to  project  the  cork  to  some  dis- 
tance. 

'  Solid  bodies  of  a  porous  texture,  such  as  wood,  are 
easily  torn  asunder  by  an  electric  charge.  If  two  holes 
be  drilled  in  the  opposite  ends  of  a  piece  of  wood,  about 
half  an  inch  long,  and  a  quarter  of  an  inch  thick,  and 
the  ends  of  two  wires  inserted  in  the  holes,  so  that  their 
points  may  heat  the  distance  of  a  quarter  of  an  inch,  on 
passing  a  strong  charge  the  wood  will  be  split  in 
pieces.  Stones,  loaf-sugar,  and  other  brittle  and  imper- 
fectly conducting  substances,  may  be  broken  in  a  simi- 
lar way. 

'Place  a  piece  of  dry  writing  paper  upon  the  table  of 
the  universal  discharger,  and  having  removed  the  balls 
from  the  ends  of  the  sliding  wire?,  press  the  points  of  the 
wires  against  the  paper  at  the  distance  of  two  inches  from 
each  other,  if  a  powerful  shock  be  now  sent  through  the 
wires,  the  paper  will  be  torn  in  pieces.  If  a  number  of 
wafers  be  placed  on  the  table  instead  of  paper  they  will 
be  dispersed  in  a  curious  manner,  and  many  of  them 
broken  into  small  fragments. 

The  thunder  house.  This  is  an  apparatus  designed  to 
show  the  efficacy  of  a  lightning  rod  in  preventing  the 
violent  effects  of  lightning.  It  contains  in  the  side  of  a 
little  wooden  house,  a  square  piece  of  wood,  which  when 
the  little  lightning  rod  is  interrupted  in  its  course,  is 
thrown  out  with  violence. 


ELECTRICITY.  519 


Violent  effects  of  lightning.  We  have  already  men- 
tioned the  light  and  the  heat  evolved  by  the  electric  fluid 
from  the  clouds,  but  the  mechanical  effects  of  its  violence 
are,  if  possible,  still  more  striking.  In  passing  down 
through  a  floor,  it  sometimes  perforates  it  in  many  places. 
It  knocks  down  walls,  breaks  panes  of  glass,  —  and  tears 
and  splits  the  largest  trees.  A  case  is  described  in  Silli- 
man's  Journal  of  Science,  in  which  the  clothes  of  a  man 
standing  at  the  door  of  his  house,  were  torn  into  utter 
fragments.  He  was  rendered  senseless  by  the  shock  but 
soon  recovered. 

8.   EJfcct  of  electricity  upon  the  animal  system. 

If  the  knuckle  of  the  operator  is  brought  to  the  prime 
conductor,  when  it  is  charged,  —  the  spark  is  received, 
and  a  slight  pricking  sensation  is  felt.  If  the  spaik  is 
very  large,  a  sudden  and  very  peculiar  sensation  is  felt 
through  the  joint.  It  is  very  slightly  painful. 

When,  however,  the  Ley  den  jar  is  used,  and  the  per- 
former grasps  the  outside  with  one  hand  and  touches  the 
knob  with  the  other,  a  very  peculiar,  and  if  the  charge  is 
large,  a  very  painful  sensation,  called  the  electric  shock, 
is  felt  through  the  arms  and  chest.  If  several  individ- 
uals unite  by  joining  hands,  and  at  one  end  of  the  line  a 
connexion  is  formed  with  the  outside,  and  at  the  other 
end  with  the  inside  of  the  jar,  they  will  all  perceive  the 
shock  at  the  same  instant.  It  produces  a  painful  feeling 
at  the  joints,  attended  by  a  convulsive  twitch,  which 
causes  an  involuntary  start.  Some  persons  arc  much 
more  easily  affected  than  others.  In  many  cases  young 
persons  are  fond  of  taking  the  shocks,  —  to  others  they 
are  highly  disagreeable. 

When  this  singular  effect  of  electricity  was  originally 
discovered,  the  philosophers  who  first  experienced  the 
hock  in  their  own  persons,  were  '  so  impressed  with 
wonder  and  with  terror  by  this  novel  sensation,  that  they 
wrote  the  most  ridiculous  and  exaggerated  account  of 
their  feelings  on  the  occasion.  Muschenbroek  states, 
that  he  received  so  dreadful  a  concussion  in  his  arms, 
shoulder,  and  heart,  that  he  lost  his  breath,  and  that  it 
was  two  days  before  he  could  recover  from  its  effects ;  he 


520  ELECTRICITY. 


declared  also  that  he  should  not  be  induced  to  take 
another  shock  for  the  whole  kingdom  of  France.  Mr 
Allemand  reports,  that  the  shock  deprived  him  of  breath 
for  some  minutes,  and  afterwards  produced  so  acute  a 
pain  along  his  right  arm,  that  he  was  apprehensive  it 
might  be  attended  with  serious  consequences.  Mr 
Winkler  informs  us,  that  it  threw  his  whole  body  into 
convulsions,  and  excited  such  a  ferment  in  his  blood,  as 
would  have  thrown  him  into  a  fever,  but  for  the  timely 
employment  of  febrifuge  remedies.  He  states,  that  at 
another  time  it  produced  copious  bleeding  at  the  nose ; 
the  same  effect  was  produced  also  upon  his  lady,  who  was 
almost,  rendered  incapable  of  walking.  These  strange  ac- 
counts naturally  excited  the  attention  and  wonder  of  all 
classes  of  people;  the  learned  and  the  vulgar  were  equal- 
ly desirous  of  experiencing  so  singular  a  sensation,  and 
great  numbers  of  half-taught  electricians  wandered 
through  every  part  of  Europe,  to  gratify  this  universal  cu- 
riosity.' 

The  shock  is,  however,  perfectly  harmless,  at  least 
when  obtained  from  any  common  sized  Leyden  jar. 
The  unpleasant  feeling  passes  off  in  a  "moment,  and 
though  in  the  use  of  an  electric  machine,  the  performer 
is  continually  liable  to  allow  the  charge  to  pass  through 
his  system  unintentionally,  —  and  indeed  accidents  of 
this  kind  very  often  happen  —  yet  we  are  not  aware  that 
any  serious  effects  have  in  any  case  resulted.  The  safe- 
ty is,  however,  owing  entirely  to  the  smallness  of  the 
rmtity  of  electricity  which  can  be  accumulated  with 
common  apparatus. 

The  electric  fluid  when  collected  in  sufficient  quanti- 
ties, and  caused  to  pass  through  the  animal  frame,  —  de- 
stroys life  at  once.  Ft  is  common  to  ?ho\v  this  by  killing 
small  animals,  with  Leyden  jars  or  a  battery.  A  square 
foot  of  coated  surface  will  take  the  life  of  an  animal  of 
the  size  of  a  rat  or  a  squirrel.  With  large  batteries  the 
same  effect  may  be  produced  upon  larger  animals.  The 
experiments  are,  however,  not  very  pleasant  to  be  per- 
formed, and  the  results  may  perhaps  as  well  be  taken 
upon  trust. 

The  fluid  seems  to  act  most  directly  upon  the  nervou* 


ELECTRICITY.  521 


system,  and  its  power  here  has  been  employed  exten- 
sively for  medical  purposes.  The  benefits  resulting  have 
been  at  some  periods  highly  exaggerated,  but  there  is 
perhaps  no  doubt  that  in  many  diseases  the  effects  of 
this  agent  are  salutary. 

'Electricity  may  be  administered  medicinally  in  four 
different  ways.  The  first  and  most  gentle  is  under  the 
form  of  a  continued  stream,  or  aura  as  it  is  termed,  de- 
rived from  a  wire  or  pointed  piece  of  wood  connected 
with  the  prime  conductor,  and  held  at  the  distance  of  one 
or  two  inches  from  the  point  to  which  it  is  to  be  direct- 
ed ;  an  impression  is  felt  similar  to  a  current  of  air ; 
and  in  this  way  it  may  be  borne  by  parts  of  great  sensi- 
bility, such  as  the  eye.  The  second  mode  is  by  direct- 
ing sparks  of  various  sizes  to  the  affected  part,  by  means 
of  a  metallic  ball  at  the  extremity  of  a  brass  rod,  which 
is  within  a  moderate  distance  from  the  part ;  or  else  by 
placing  the  patient  on  an  insulating  stool,  and  while  he 
is  in  communication  with  the  prime  conductor  of  the  ma- 
chine, taking  sparks  from  him  by  another  person  with  a 
metallic  ball  at  the  end  of  a  rod  which  he  holds  in  his 
hand.  The  size  and  intensity  of  the  sparks  will,  of  course, 
be  regulated  by  the  distance  at  which  the  ball  is  placed 
from  the  body,  provided  the  machine  be  steadily  work- 
ed. The  third  mode  is  that  by  shocks  from  the  discharge 
of  a  Leyden  phial,  which  is,  of  course,  the  most  severe 
and  painful  method  of  applying  electricity.  Great  cau- 
tion is  required  against  the  indiscriminate  application  of 
this  last  method,  which  is  not  wholly  free  from  danger.' 

We  have  thus  presented  a  brief,  and  it  has  been  in- 
tended to  be,  a  simple  view  of  the  science  of  electricity. 
Our  design  has  been  to  give  in  the  confined  space  allotted 
to  us,  as  full  a  description  of  the  nature  and  effects 
of  this  mysterious  agent,  as  is  in  our  power. 

Some  very  interesting  incidents  which  have  occurred 
in  the  history  of  this  science,  we  should  have  been  glad 
to  have  presented,  if  our  limits  had  allowed.  We  can- 
not, however,  forbear  quoting  in  the  conclusion  of  our 
treatise,  the  following  description  of  Franklin's  experi- 
ments to  identify  the  electric  fluid  and  the  lightning  of 
the  clouds. 

VOL.    I. NO.    XXI.  46 


522  ELECTRICITY. 


'  Dr  Franklin  was  so  impressed  with  the  many  points 
of  resemblance  between  lightning  and  electricity,  that 
he  was  convinced  of  their  identity,  and  determined  to 
ascertain  by  direct  experiment  the  truth  of  his  bold  con- 
jecture. A  spire  which  was  erecting  in  Philadelphia  he 
conceived  might  assist  him  in  this  inquiry  ;  but,  while 
waiting  for  its  completion,  the  sight  of  a  boy's  kite,  which 
had  been  raised  for  amusement,  immediately  suggested 
to  him  a  more  ready  method  of  attaining  his  object. 
Having  constructed  a  kite  by  stretching  a  large  silk  hand- 
kerchief over  two  sticks  in  the  form  of  a  cross,  on  the 
first  appearance  of  an  approaching  storm,  in  June,  1752, 
he  went  out  into  a  field,  accompanied  by  his  son,  to 
whom  alone  he  had  imparted  his  design.  Having  raised 
his  kite,  and  attached  a  key  to  the  lower  end  of  the 
hempen  string,  he  insulated  it  byfastening  it  to  a  post,  by 
means  of  asifk.  string,  and  waited  with  intense  interest  for 
the  result.  A  considerable  time  elapsed  without  the  ap- 
paratus giving  any  sign  of  electricity,  even  although  a 
dense  cloud,  apparently  charged  with  lightning,  had  pass- 
ed over  the  spot  on  which  they  stood.  Franklin  was 
just  beginning  to  despair  of  success,  when  his  atten- 
tion was  caught  by  the  bristling  up  of  some  of  the  loose 
fibres  on  the  hempen  cord;  he  immediately  presented  his 
knuckle  to  the  key,  and  received  an  electric  spark. 
Overcome  with  the  emotion  inspired  by  this  decisive 
evidence  of  the  great  discovery  he  had  achieved,  he 
heaved  a  deep  sigh,  and  conscious  of  an  immortal  name, 
felt  he  could  have  been  content  if  that  moment  had 
been  his  list.  The  rain  now  fell  in  torrents,  and  wet- 
ting the  string,  rendered  it  conducting  in  its  whole 
length ;  so  that  electric  sparks  were  now  collected  from 
it  in  great  abundance. 

*  It  should  be  noticed,  however,  that  about  a  month 
before  Franklin  made  these  successful  trials,  some  phi- 
losophers had  obtained  similar  results  in  France,  by  fol- 
lowing the  plan  recommended  by  Franklin.  But  the 
glory  of  the  discovery  is  universally  given  to  Franklin, 
as  it  was  from  his  suggestions  that  the  methods  of  ob- 
taining it  were  originally  derived. 

'  This  important  discovery  was  prosecuted  with  great 


ELECTRICITY. 


ardor  by  philosophers  in  every  part  of  Europe.  The 
first  experimenters  incurred  considerable  risk  in  their 
attempts  to  draw  down  electricity  from  the  clouds,  as 
was  soon  proved  by  the  fatal  catastrophe,  which,  on  the 
sixth  of  August,  befel  Professor  Richman,  of  Peters- 
burgh,  whose  name  has  been  already  before  us.  He  had 
constructed  an  apparatus  for  observations  on  atmosphe- 
rical electricity,  and  was  attending  a  meeting  of  the 
Academy  of  Sciences,  when  the  sound  of  distant  thun- 
der caught  his  ear.  He  immediately  hastened  home, 
taking  with  him  his  engraver,  Sokolon,  that  he  might 
delineate  the  appearances  that  might  present  themselves. 
While  intent  upon  examining  the  electrometer,  a  large 
globe  of  fire  flashed  from  the  conducting  rod,  which  was 
insulated,  to  the  head  of  Richman,  and  passing  through 
his  body,  instantly  deprived  him  of  life.  A  red  spot 
was  found  on  his  forehead,  where  the  electricity  had 
entered,  his  shoe  was  burst  open,  and  part  of  his  clothes 
singed.  His  companion  was  struck  down,  and  remain- 
ed senseless  for  some  time ;  the  door  case  of  the  room 
was  split,  and  the  door  itself  torn  off  its  hinges.' 


•^ 

AGI 

FOl 

SCIENTIFI 

MAINE. 

Portland,           Samuel   Colman. 
Hallo  well,         C.   Spaulding. 
Augusta,          P.  Jl.  Brinsmade. 
Bangor,             B.  JVourse. 
Belfast,             JV.  P.  Hawes. 

Norway,           Jl*a  Barton. 
NEW  HAMPSHIRE. 
n                      (  Eli  French, 
Dover>             1  S.  C.  Stevens. 
Hanover,           Thomas  Mann. 
Concord,            Horatio  Hill  <$•   Co. 
Keene,               George  Tildm. 
Portsmouth,      John  W.  Foster. 
VERMONT. 
Burlington,       C.  Goodrich. 
Brattleboro',     Geo.  II.  Peck. 
Windsor,           Simeon  Ide. 
Montnelier,       J.  S.    Walton. 
Bellows  Falls,  ./««.<•*  /.  Cutler*  Co. 
Rutland,            Hawkes  f  While. 
Middlebury,      Jonathan  Hagar. 
Castleton,         B.  Burt  2d. 
St  Albans,         L.  L.  Dutcher. 
Chester,            Carles  Whipple. 
MASSACHUSETTS. 
Salem,                Winpple  tf  Liwrence. 

Northampton)  &  Butler  tf  Son. 
Andover,           M.  Jfetcinan. 
Amherst,           .7.  S.  $•   C.  Jdams. 
Worcester,        Dorr  $   Howland. 
Springfield,        Thomas  Dickman. 
New  Bedford,    Wm  C.  Tabor. 
Methuon,           J.  W.   Carllon  If  Co. 
Brookfield,        E.  %  G.  Merriam. 
Greenfield,        Merriam,  Little  %  Co. 
RHODE  ISLAND. 
Providence,   \  ^ure^  ^^4TtA 
CONNECTICUT. 
Hartford,          //.  $  F.  J.  Hunlington 
New  Haven,     J.  H.  Maltby 

;NTS 

THE 

C    TRACTS. 

Norwich,             Thomas  Robinson. 
Middletown,       Kdirin  Hunt. 
NEW  YORK. 
New  York,          Charles  S.  Francis. 

Canandaigua,     Benns  4-    Wird. 
Troy,                     W.  S.  Parker. 
Utica,                  Edicard  ferno*. 
Rochester,          E.  Peck  If  Co. 
NEW  JERSEY. 
Newark,          i      Wm  Worts. 
Trenton,             P.  Fenton. 
PENNSYLVANIA. 
Philadelphia,     Thomas  T,  4sh. 
MARYLAND. 
Baltimore,          P.  JV.  Wood. 
DISTRICT  OF  COLUMBIA. 
Washington,       Thompson  If  Homons. 
Georgetown,       James  Thomas. 
VIRGINIA. 
Fredericksburg,  H'm.  F.  Gray   P.  JM. 
OHIO. 

Cincinnati,     |  QJ-)^  Bradford  ty  Co.' 
Columbus,          /  JV.  IVhitinv. 
MISSISSIPPI.    a 
Natches,          F  .  Beaumont. 
SOUTH  CAROLINA. 

Charleston,    \$*fi££3!'' 

Clierau,               Dr  .Maiinard. 
NORTH  CAROLINA. 
Raleigh,             Turner  if   Huirhes. 
GEORGIA. 
Savannah,          Thomas  M.  Driscoll. 
ALABAMA. 
Mobile,              Odiorne  If  Smith. 
LOUISIANA. 
New  Orleans,    Mnrv  Carroll. 
MICHIGAN  TERRITORY. 
Detroit,              George  L.   Whttney. 
CANADA, 
Montreal,          //.  H.  Cunningham. 
Quebec,             jVei/son  ^  Cowan. 
ENGLAND. 
Lonon               John  JUardcn. 

PUBLISHED    BY    CARTER     AND     HENDEE. 

Corner  of  Washington  and  School  Streets. 

BOSTON     CLASSIC     PRESS  I.     R.     BUTTS. 

%*  TERMS  —  24  Numbers  a  year,  at  ONE  DOI,  LAB  AND  FIFTY 

CENTS. 

SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS. 

NUMBER    XXII. 


MILITARY     PROJECTILES. 

ANALYSIS. 

Nature  of  the  path  of  a  projectile.  Primitive  contrivances ;  Sim- 
ple human  strength ;  Sling ;  Dart.  Elasticity  of  various  substances. 
Bow  and  Arrow  ;  Ballista ;  Catapulta.  Description  of  the  siege  of 
Syracuse. 

Invention  of  gunpowder.  Cannon.  Mortars.  Shells.  Carcas- 
ses. Description  of  the  shelling  of  a  fort  in  India.  Howitzers,  Car- 
ronades.  Portable  fire-arms.  Theory  of  the  rifle.  History  of 
the  science  of  Gunnery.  Calculations  and  experiments.  Eprouvette . 
Ballistic  Pendulum. 


THEORY    OF    PROJECTILES. 

Whenever  a  body  is  projected,  as  for  example,  a  cannoa 
ball,  it  is  plain  that  it  is  acted  upon  by  two  forces,  the  at- 
traction of  gravitation  draw  ing  it  towards  the  earth,  and 
the  impelling  forr.c,  whatever  that  may  be.  In  order, 
then,  to  ascertain  the  path  of  the  body,  we  must  consider 
the  nature  of  these  two  forces,  first,  separately,  and  then 
in  their  united  action  upon  the  body  projected. 

It  has  been  already  shown  in  our  tract  on  Gravitation, 
that  bodies  when  falling  freely,  descend  in  the  first  se- 
cond 16.1  feet,  in  the  next  second  48.3,  making  in  the 
two  64.4,  or  four  times  the  space  passed  over  in  one. 
In  the  same  manner,  in  thnc  seconds,  a  body  will  fall  nine 
times  as  far  as  in  one,  and  in  four  seconds  sixteen  times 
as  far ;  —  and,  universally,  the  space  through  which  the 
body  will  descend  will  be  as  the  square  of  the  time, 

VOL.    I. NO.    XXII.  47 


526 


MIL1TARV    PROJECTILES. 


-  End  of  the  third  second. 


-  End  of  the  fourth  second. 


This  accelerated  motion  may  be  easily  represented  to 
the  eye  thus :  — 

—  Beginning  of  the  fall. 

1  -  End  of  the  first  second.  In  this  line  each  little  di- 

vision represents    16.1    feet, 

I  End  of  the  second  second,  as  that  is  the  space  through 
which  a  body  falls  in  the  first 
second. 

The  other  force  to  which 
a  projected  body  is  subject, 

10  -  is  the  impulse  which  is  given 

it.  This  is  much  more  sim- 
ple in  its  character,  for,  if 
we  leave  out  of  the  consid- 
eration the  resistance  of  the 
air,  the  effect  of  this  impulse 
is  uniform.  Motion  once  imparted  continues  unchang- 
ed, unless  some  foreign  force  affects  it.  Consequently, 
the  tendency  of  the  force  of  impulse  is  to  carry  forward 
the  body  uniformly  in  a  straight  line. 

These  two  forces  now  must  be  combined  in  order  to 
show  the  real  path  of  the  projectile.  Their  combina- 
tion is  usually  illustrated  by  the  following  diagram. 

The  line  o  c  repre- 
sents the  tendency  of  f»          i       ?,3' 
gravitation,  with  the          „         ll'_^J^ 
seconds    marked   on 
the  left ;  o  4'b  repre-  aj 
sents  the  tendency  of 
the   projectile  force, 
which  being  uniform, 
the   line    is    divided 
into       equal       parts, 
which  are  marked  by 
the    seconds    above. 
These  parts  compar- 
ed with   one  of   the 
divisions  of  the  per- 
pendicular line  appear  to  be  about  five  times  as  long  ; 
and  as  these  divisions  stand  for  about  sixteen  feet,  the 
divisions  of  the  other  line  would  represent  about  seven- 


at' 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES.  527 

tyfive  feet  each;  —  so  that  the  figure  corresponds  with 
the  condition  of  a  body  thrown  a  little  upwards  with  a 
velocity  of  about  seventy five  feet  per  second.  Now  the 
effect  of  the  projectile  force  will  be  to  carry  it  on,  during 
the  first  second,  as  far  as  61',  while  during  the  same 
time,  gravitation  will  bring  it  down  from  the  point  61' 
which  it  would  have  reached,  as  much  as  the  distance 
from  o  to  «!'.  The  point  then  at  which  the  body  will 
be  found  is  m.  In  the  same  manner  we  find  the  points 
n,  0,  p,  the  successive  places  of  the  body  at  the  end  of 
the  second,  third,  and  fourth  seconds.  The  whole  path 
of  the  projectile  will  be  the  curve  o,  m,  n,  o,  p. 

It  is  not  our  present  purpose  to  go  any  farther  into  the 
theory  of  projectiles,  but  to  give  some  practical  informa- 
tion, for  the  benefit  of  the  general  reader,  in  regard  to 
the  contrivances  for  propelling  heavy  bodies  for  the  pur-- 
poses  of  war.  The  above  theoretical  view  was  necessa- 
ry to  illustrate  some  remarks  to  be  made  in  the  sequel. 

PRIMITIVE    CONTRIVANCES. 

1 .  The  unassisted  strength  of  the  human  arm  was  the 
first  force  which  was  applied  to  the  purpose  of  projecting 
bodies  for  offensive  purposes.     Stones,   clubs  and  spears 
were   the  first  rude   weapons.     The  muscular   strength 
which  gives  motion  to   such   projectiles  is  not,   strictly 
speaking,  directly  applied  to  them  by  impulse.     Jt  is  em- 
ployed in  giving  a  circular  motion  to  the  arm,  the  body 
to  be  projected  being  thrown  of  by  the  centrifugal  force. 
Consequently  the  force  given  to  the  projectile  will  be  pro- 
portional, not  only   to  the  strength  of  the  individual,  but 
to  the  length  of  his  arm,  as  this  would  increase  the  length 
of  the   arc  through  which  the  hand   moves,  and   conse- 
quently its  velocity.     A  very  obvious  mode  of  increasing 
the  power,  therefore,  would  be   to  increase  by   artificial 
means  this  length,  which  gives  rise  to  the  construction  of 
the  second  species  of  weapons. 

2.  The   sling  and  the  dart,  two  modes  of  projecting 
bodies  which  evidently  derive  their  power  from  increas- 
ing the  velocity  of  the  projectile,  by   increasing   the  arc 
through  which  it  moves,  and  which  differ  from  each  other, 


523  MILITARY    PROJECTILKS. 

only  in  the  trifling  difference  of  the  purposes  to  which 
they  were  applied.  The  sling  being  intended  to  throw 
a  stone,  and  the  dart,  a  sort  of  arrow. 

'3.  The  third  class  comprises  those  in  which  the  elas- 
tic force  of  various  substances  is  applied  to  the  projec- 
tile. The  bow  and  arrow  is  the  simplest  instrument  of 
this  kind,  and  it  was  for  a  long  time  in  earlier  ages,  one 
of  the  most  important  means  of  warfare.  Hand-bows 
were  constructed  of  various  materials,  and  fitted  up  in 
very  various  ways.  The  accuracy  with  which  they  may  be 
aimed,  and  the  greater  velocity  which  may  be  given  to  the. 
projectile,  enabled  them  to  take  a  high  rank  in  the  time 
when  they  were  introduced. 

As  men  advanced  in  the  arts  of  life,  and  began  to  feel 
the  necessity  of  having  some  permanent  means  of  de- 
fence, walls  and  fortifications  of  various  kinds  began  to 
be  erected,  which  were  for  a  long  time  an  effectual  secu- 
rity from  violence.  The  same  principle,  however,  with 
that  which  gives  its  efficiency  to  the  bow  and  arrow,  soon 
afforded  the  means  of  successful  attack  against  these. 
The  engines  so  frequently  mentioned  in  ancient  history 
under  the  names  of  Balista  —  Catapulta  —  Oneiger,  &.c, 
—  were  variously  constructed  ;  but  the  force  was  usually 
the  elasticity  of  twisted  ropes.  The  construction  and 
the  employment  of  these  and  similar  engines,  continued 
for  some  time  in  the  middle  ages.  They  received  various 
names,  and  were  variously  modified  according  to  the  in- 
genuity, or  the  particular  purposes  of  the  engineers  who 
prepared  them. 

It  is  not  possible  to  ascertain  now  with  any  accuracy, 
what  was  the  form,  or  how  great  the  power  of  these  en- 
gines. The  most  exaggerated  accounts  of  their  magni- 
tude and  effects  have  descended  to  us,  and  whatever  de- 
duction it  is  necessary  to  make  from  these,  it  is  doubt- 
less true,  that  immense  stones,  and  beams  of  wood,  and 
other  ponderous  missiles  of  great  size  were  thrown  by 
these  machines  with  great  force  and  effect.  The  follow- 
ing extract  from  Plutarch's  account  of  the  siege  of  Syra- 
cuse, will  illustrate  the  use  of  these  and  similar  engines. 

'  Archimedes  one  day  asserted  to  king  Hiero,  whose 
kinsman  and  friend  he  was,  this  proposition,  that  with  a 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES.  529 

given  power  he  could  move  any  given  weight  whatever ; 
nay,  it  is  said,  from  the  confidence  he  had  in  his  demon- 
stration, he  ventured  to  affirm,  that  if  there  was  another 
earth  besides  this  we  inhabit,  by  going  into  that,  he 
would  move  this  wherever  he  pleased.  Hiero,  full  of 
wonder,  begged  of  him  to  evince  the  truth  of  his  propo- 
sition, by  moving  some  great  weight  with  a  small  power. 
In  compliance  with  which,  Archimedes  caused  one  of 
the  king's  galleys  to  be  drawn  on  shore,  with  many  hands 
and  much  labor ;  and  having  well  maimed  her,  and  put 
on  board  her  usual  loading,  he  placed  himself  at  a  dis- 
tance, and  without  any  pains,  only  moving  with  his  hand 
the  end  of  a  machine,  which  consisted  of  a  variety  of 
ropes  and  pulleys,  he  drew  her  to  him  in  as  smooth  and 
gentle  a  manner  as  if  she  had  been  under  full  sail.  The 
king  quite  astonished  when  he  saw  the  force  of  his  art, 
prevailed  upon  Archimedes  to  make  for  him  all  manner 
of  engines  and  machines  which  could  be  used  either  for 
attack  or  defence  in  a  siege.  These,  however,  he  never 
made  use  of,  the  greatest  part  of  his  reign  being  blessed 
with  tranquillity ;  but  they  were  extremely  serviceable  to 
the  Syracusans  on  the  present  occasion,  who,  with  such 
a  number  of  machines,  had  the  inventor  to  direct  them. 
'  When  the  Romans  attacked  them  both  by  sea  'and 
land,  they  were  struck  dumb  with  terror,  imagining  they 
could  not  possibly  resist  such  numerous  forces  and  so  fu- 
rious an  assault.  But  Archimedes  soon  began  to  play 
his  engines,  and  they  shot  against  the  land  forces,  all 
sorts  of  missive  weapons,  and  stones  of  an  enormous  size, 
with  so  incredible  a  noise  and  rapidity,  that  nothing  could 
stand  before  them ;  they  overturned  and  crushed  what- 
ever came  in  their  way,  and  spread  terrible  disorder 
throughout  the  ranks.  On  the  side  towards  the  sea  were 
erected  vast  machines,  putting  forth  on  a  sudden  over  the 
walls,  huge  beams,  which  striking  with  a  prodigious  force 
on  the  enemy's  galleys,  sunk  them  at  once;  while  other 
ships  hoisted  up  at  the  prows  by  iron  grapples  or  hooks, 
like  the  beaks  of  cranes,  and  set  an  end  on  the  stern,  were 
plunged  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea ;  and  others  again  by 
ropes  and  grapples  were  drawn  towards  the  shore,  and 
after  being  whirled  about,  and  dashed  against  the  rocks 


530  MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 

that  projected  below  the  walls,  were  broken  to  pieces, 
and  the  crew  perished.  Very  often  a  ship  lifted  high 
above  the  sea,  suspended  and  twirling  in  the  air,  present- 
ed a  most  dreadful  spectacle.  There  it  swung  till  the 
men  were  thrown  out  by  the  violence  of  the  motion,  and 
then  it  split  against  the  walls,  or  sunk,  on  the  engines 
ietting  go  its  hold.  As  for  the  machine  which  Marcellus 
brought  forward  upon  eight  galleys,  and  which  was  call- 
ed sambuca  on  account  of  its  likeness  to  the  musical  in- 
strument of  that  name,  whilst  it  was  at  a  considerable 
distance  from  the  wall,  Archimedes  discharged  a  stone 
of  ten  talents'  weight,  and  after  that  a  second  and  a 
third,  all  which  striking  upon  it  with  amazing  noise  and 
force,  shattered  and  totally  disjointed  it. 

'  Marcellus,  in  his  distress,  drew  off  his  galleys  as  fast 
as  possible,  and  sent  orders  to  the  land  forces  to  retreat 
likewise.  He  then  called  a  council  of  war,  in  which  it 
was  resolved,  to  come  close  to  the  walls,  if  it  was  possi- 
ble, next  day  before  morning.  For  Archimedes'  engines, 
they  thought,  being  very  strong,  and  intending  to  act  at 
a  considerable  distance,  would  then  discharge  themselves 
over  their  heads ;  and  if  they  were  pointed  at  them 
when  so  near,  would  have  no  effect.  But  for  this  Archi- 
medes had  long  been  prepared,  having  by  him  engines 
fitted  to  all  distances,  with  suitable  weapons  and  shorter 
beams.  Besides.,  he  had  caused  holes  to  be  made  in  the 
walls,  in  which  he  had  placed  scorpions,  that  did  not  car- 
ry far,  but  could  be  fast  discharged,  and  by  these  the 
enemy  was  galled,  without  knowing  whence  the  weapon 
came. 

'  When,  therefore,  the  Romans  got  close  to  the  walls, 
undiscovered,  as  they  thought,  they  were  welcomed  with 
a  shower  of  darts,  and  huge  pieces  of  rocks,  which  fell 
as  it  were  perpendicularly  on  their  heads  ;  lor  the  engines 
played  from  every  quarter  of  the  walls.  This  obliged 
them  to  retire ;  and  when  they  were  at  some  distance, 
other  shafts  were  shot  at  them,  in  their  retreat,  from  the 
larger  machines,  which  made  terrible  havoc  among  them 
as  well  as  greatly  damaged  their  shipping,  without  any 
possibility  of  their  annoying  the  Syracusans  in  their  turn  ; 
for  Archimedes  had  placed  most  of  his  engines  under 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES.  531 

covert  of  the  walls;  so  that  the  Romans,  being  infinitely 
distressed  by  an  invisible  enemy,  seemed  to  fight  against 
the  gods. 

'  Marcellus,  however,  got  off,  and  laughed  at  his  own 
artillery  men  and  engineers.  "  Why  do  we  not  leave  off 
contending,"  said  he,  u  with  this  mathematical  Briareus, 
who  sitting  on  the  shore,  and  acting  as  it  were  but  in 
jest,  has  shamefully  baffled  our  naval  assault;  and,  in 
striking  us  with  such  a  multitude  of  bolts  at  once,  exceeds 
even  the  hundred  giants  in  the  fable'?"  And,  in  truth 
all  the  rest  of  the  Syracusans  were  no  more  than  the 
body  in  the  batteries  of  Archimedes,  while  he  himself 
was  the  informing  soul.  All  other  weapons  lay  idle  and 
unemployed ;  his  were  the  only  offensive  and  defensive 
arms  of  the  city.  At  last  the  Romans  were  so  terrifi- 
ed, that  if  they  saw  but  a  rope  or  stick  put  over  the  walls, 
they  cried  out  that  Archimedes  was  levelling  some  ma- 
chine at  them,  and  turned  their  backs  and  fled.  Mar- 
cellus,  seeing  this,  gave  up  all  thoughts  of  proceeding  by 
assault,  and  leaving  the  matter  to  time,  turned  the  siege 
into  a  blockade.' 

Such  is  Plutarch's  account.  The  reader  may  perhaps 
look  a  little  incredulous  at  the  idea  of  ships  being  hook- 
ed up  into  the  air,  and  whirled  round  against  rocks 
and  walls  till  they  are  dashed  to  pieces  —  and  even  at 
some  other  parts  of  this  account.  But,  however,  exag- 
gerated it  may  be  in  its  details,  there  is  no  question  that 
Archimedes  brought  on  this  occasion  an  immense  me- 
chanical power  to  bear  on  the  work  of  projecting 
missiles. 

The  invention  of  gunpowder,  however  at  length,  sup- 
plied a  new  and  a  tremendous  power,  which  with  the 
rapid  and  decisive  agency  which  is  so  characteristic  of 
all  its  effects,  has  banished  every  other  mode  of  pro- 
jection from  the  field  and  from  the  fortress.  We  shall 
make  no  delay  in  examining  the  questions  which  involve 
its  early  history  in  obscurity,  nor  even  stop  to  consid- 
er who  is  to  receive  the  honor  of  its  first  composition. 
Very  soon  after  its  introduction  as  a  means  of  war,  the 
nations  of  Europe  who  attempted  to  employ  it,  vied  with 
each  other  in  the  magnitude  of  the  pieces  of  artillery 


532  MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 

which  they  brought  into  the  field.  They  were  usually 
.made  of  bars  of  metal  hooped  together ;  some  of  very 
great  size  are  described  in  books,  many  of  which  are 
now  existing  in  the  fortresses  of  Europe.  There  is  one 
in  Asia,  probably  the  largest  in  existence.  Fourteen 
feet  long,  nearly  five  in  diameter,  and  two  and  a  half 
bore. 

The  form  and  proportion  of  a  piece  of  ordnance  vary 
according  to  the  object  for  which  any  particular  piece 
is  designed.  The  bore  of  the  cannon  is  cylindrical  ex- 
cepting a  cavity  in  large  pieces,  near  the  breech  for  the 
reception  of  the  powder. 

We  shall  enumerate  some  of  the  principal  varieties 
of  ordnance,  with  a  short  description  of  the  particular 
purposes  of  each. 

MODERN    ORDNANCE. 

1.  The  cannon.  This  name  is  applied  to  those  pieces 
whose  object  is  to  throw  a  simple  heavy  ball,  which  is 
to  do  injury  solely  by  its  momentum.  It  is  mounted  in 
various  ways,  according  to  the  particular  purpose  for 
which  it  is  designed,  to  be  placed  in  a  fortress,  or  in  a 
ship,  or  to  be  carried  into  the  field.  It  is  supported  by 
its  trunnions,  which  are  two  cylindrical  projections,  one 
on  each  side,  and  is  aimed  by  elevating  or  depressing  its 
breech  by  means  of  wedges,  and  sometimes  by  a  screw. 
As  has  been  before  remarked,  this  species  of  artillery 
was  formerly  made  immensely  large,  but  experience  has 
taught  military  men,  that  by  reducing  the  size  more  is 
gained  by  the  ease  and  the  frequency  of  the  discharges, 
han  is  lost  by  diminishing  the  balls.  The  size  of  the 
pieces  has  .been  consequently  much  reduced.  Those 
now  in  use  by  the  European  powers  throw  balls  whose 
weight  is  from  one  to  fortytwo  pounds ;  —  each  piece  re- 
ceiving its  name  from  the  weight  of  the  ball  which  it  is 
intended  to  discharge. 

The  balls  themselves  are  generally  of  cast  iron. 
Stones  were  formerly  used,  especially  when  very  large 
pieces  were  to  be  loaded.  Stones  coated  with  lead  have 
sometimes  been  employed.  Balls  heated  in  a  furnace 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES.  533 

are  often  discharged  for  the  purpose  of  setting  fire  to  the 
object  which  they  strike.  From  this  piece  of  ordnance 
there  are  discharged  canister  shot,  by  which  is  meant  a 
quantity  of  small  balls  inclosed  in  a  tin  case,  and  grape 
shot,  balls  of  the  same  kind  bound  up  tightly  in  a  can- 
vass bag.  These  coverings  are  burst  by  the  violence  of 
the  discharge,  and  the  balls  scattered  in  every  direction 
are  very  destructive  to  the  ranks  of  an  enemy.  There 
are  also  chain  shot  and  bar  shot,  consisting  of  two  balls 
connected  by  a  bar  or  a  chain,  which  are  principally  used 
for  the  purpose  of  disabling  vessels,  by  cutting  the  rig- 
ging and  splintering  the  masts  and  spars. 

2.  Mortars.  This  species  of  ordnance  is  designed 
to  discharge  bomb  shells,  which  are  hollow  balls  of  iron 
filledVith  gunpowder,  with  a  slow  match  attached  to  each, 
of  such  length  as  to  explode  soon  after  the  bomb  strikes. 
It  is  necessary,  in  order  to  insure  that  the  explosion  of 
the  shell  should  take  place  while  it  is  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  object  which  it  is  intended  to  injure,  that  it  should 
be  discharged  into  the  air,  so  that  falling  nearly  perpen- 
dicularly, it  remains  in  the  place  where  it  strikes,  until 
the  slow  match  is  exhausted.  The  construction  is  con- 
sequently very  different  from  that  of  the  cannon.  Its 
form  resembles  that  of  the  household  utensil  from  which 
it  takes  its  name.  It  is  fixed  nearly  perpendicular, 
and  is  susceptible  of  very  little  motion.  The  distance  to 
which  the  shell  is  to  be  thrown,  is  regulated  by  the  quan- 
tity of  powder  used  in  the  charge.  Mortars  are  also  em- 
ployed in  throwing  carcasses,  which,  like  shells  are  hol- 
low balls  of  iron,  but  are  filled  with  highly  combustible, 
though  not  explosive  substances,  designed  to  set  fire  to 
the  buildings  or  ships  upon  which  they  fall. 

There  is  a  third  kind  of  shells,  called  from  their  in- 
ventor, Shrapnells.  They  are  hollow  balls  of  iron  filled 
with  small  balls,  and  a  quantity  of  powder,  which  is  de- 
signed to  explode  when  the  shell  has  arrived  at  the  point 
where  it  is  intended  to  take  effect. 

In  order  that  the  reader  may  have  some  distinct  con- 
ception of  the  nature  and  effects  of  these  implements  of 
death,  we  have  selected  from  the  journal  of  a  British  sol- 
dier in  India,  two  extracts ;  one  giving  an  account  of  the 

VOL.I.  —  NO.  xxn.         48 


534  MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 

effect  of  a  breaching  battery,  that  is,  a  battery  of  cannon, 
intended  to  make  a  breach  in  a  wall,  by  which  the  ene- 
my might  enter,  —  and  the  other  describing  the  effect  of 
shells.  They  give  the  reader  a  pretty  vivid  picture  of  the 
nature  of  war. 

'  When  the  morning  bestowed  its  bright  rays  abroad, 
we  threw  a  little  farther  light  upon  the  subject,  by  open- 
ing our  breaching  battery,  accompanied  with  such  terri- 
fic cheering  and  shouting,  as  seemed  to  startle  the  new 
risen  sun,  which  at  that  identical  moment  appeared. 
The  enemy,  after  a  moment's  pause,  were  seen  in  a  tre- 
mendous bustle,  mustering  their  full  force ;  and  their 
heads  were  so  thick,  that,  had  our  shelling  battery  been 
ready,  we  might  have  made  dreadful  havoc  among  the 
motley  group.  They  shouted,  yelled,  screamed,  groaned  ; 
small  arms  whistled,  cannons  roared  ;  and,  in  an  instant, 
the  fort  was  enveloped  in  smoke.  On  the  following 
morning,  I  went  again  on  duty  in  the  trenches.  We  re- 
tired into  the  wood  before-mentioned,  which  had  a  path 
of  communication  with  the  trenches,  though  it  was  a 
considerable  distance  from  the  grand  breaching  battery. 
Our  operations  against  the  fort  continued  active  and  re- 
solute ;  but  our  balls  made  but  little  impression  upon  the 
mud  bastions  and  curtains.  Many  of  them  scarcely 
buried  themselves,  and  others  rolled  down  into  the  un- 
der works  of  the  enemy,  and  were  kindly  sent  back  to 
us.  It  is  almost  folly  to  attempt  to  effect  a  practicable 
breach  in  a  fort  built  of  such  materials.  The  crust  you 
knock  off  the  face  of  a  bastion  or  curtain,  forms  a  great 
barrier  to  your  upproach  to  a  solid  footing.  Young  en- 
gineers are  too  apt  to  judge,  from  the  appearance  of  the 
fallen  mud,  that  the  breach  is  practicable ;  when,  the 
first  step  the  storming  party  takes,  they  find  they  sink  up 
to  their  necks  in  light  earth.  A  woful  instance  of  this 
nature,  I  shall  have  to  advert  to  more  particularly  in  the 
course  of  my  narrative  ;  and,  if  it  prove  a  timely  hint  to 
the  inexperienced,  I  shall  be  rewarded.  Stone  forts  are 
soon  demolished ;  when  undermined  well  at  the  bottom, 
the  top  will  soon  follow,  and  they  cannot  easily  be  repair- 
ed ;  but  mud  forts  defy  human  power. 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES.  535 

« We  this  day  erected  howitzer  and  mortar  batteries, 
and  when  they  first  opened,  they  struck  terror  and  con- 
sternation into  the  enemy,  who  fled  in  every  direction, 
to  avoid  those  destructive  engines  ;  but,  in  a  few  hours, 
they  dug  holes  in  the  ramparts,  which  they  got  into 
whenever  they  saw  those  unwelcome  visiters  on  the  wing ; 
and,  unless  the  shell  happened  actually  to  fall  on  them, 
they  escaped  in  this  way.  But  our  shelling  in  those  days 
was  a  mere  bagatelle  to  what  it  is  now.  A  shell  in  five 
minutes,  was  then  enormous  ;  now,  twenty  in  one  min- 
ute is  by  no  means  extraordinary,  and  these  twice  as  big 
as  in  the  times  of  which  I  speak. 

'  This  day  the  enemy  was  pretty  passive  ;  no  doubt 
making  places  of  refuge.  Our  shells,  if  thrown  further 
into  the  town,  must  have  been  most  destructive,  for  the 
population  was  evidently  prodigious,  from  the  number  of 
fighting  men.  The  houses  frequently  appeared  on  fire, 
and  several  small  explosions  took  piace  daily  ;  no  doubt, 
small  magazines.  These  little  incidents  generally  creat- 
ed cheering  by  the  besiegers,  and  redoubled  firing  by  the 
enemy.  In  the  course  of  the  day  we  saw  the  Rajah  for 
the  first  time :  he  was  on  the  shabroodge,  or  royal  bas- 
tions, with  his  suit,  reconnoitering  with  a  spy-glass.  The 
officer  commanding  the  howitzer  battery  laid  a  shell  for 
the  shabroodge,  which  struck  the  very  top  of  it,  and  soon 
dislodged  his  highness  and  suite.  In  a  moment,  not  a 
soul  was  to  be  seen.' 

****** 

'  On  the  following  day,  after  reconnoitering  the  fort 
and  the  ground  in  its  vicinity,  spots  were  fixed  upon  for 
new  breaching  and  shelling  batteries;  and,  in  twentyfour 
hours  afterward,  we  commenced  our  work  of  death  on 
the  fort  and  its  obdurate  inmates.  Long  ere  the  hour  of 
the  sun's  decline,  it  grew  as  dark  as  midnight.  About 
ten  o'clock,  the  terrific  shelling  commenced,  every 
whistling  shell  bearing  on  its  lighted  wings  messengers 
of  death  and  desolation.  I  never  saw  these  implements 
of  destruction  so  accurately  thrown,  —  some  of  them 
scarcely  five  inches  above  the  walls  of  the  fort.  In  five 
minutes  the  screams  of  the  women  in  the  fort  were 


536  MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 

dreadful.  In  a  place  so  confined,  where  numberless 
houses  were  crowded  together,  every  shell  must  have 
found  its  way  to  some  poor  wretch's  dwelling,  and,  per- 
haps, torn  from  mother's  bosoms  their  clinging  babes. 
No  person  can  estimate  the  dreadful  carnage  committed 
by  shells,  but  those  whose  fate  it  has  been  to  witness 
the  effects  of  these  messengers  of  death.  On  this  occa- 
sion our  shells  were  very  numerous,  and  of  enormous 
size,  many  of  them  thirteen  inches  and  a  half  in  calibre. 
The  system  of  shelling  had  been  so  much  improved  in 
the  twelve  years  which  had  elapsed  since  the  siege  of 
Bhurtpore,  that,  instead  of  about  one  shell  in  five  min- 
utes from  a  single  battery,  it  was  by  no  means  extraor- 
dinary to  see  twenty  in  one  minute,  from  the  numerous 
batteries  which  were  brought  to  bear  upon  this  place. 
It  was,  at  times,  truly  awful  to  see  ten  of  these  soaring 
in  the  air  together,  seemingly  riding  on  the  midnight 
breeze,  and  disturbing  the  slumbering  clouds  on  their 
pillows  of  rest ;  all  transporting  to  a  destined  spot  the 
implements  of  havoc  and  desolation  contained  within 
their  iron  sides.  The  moon  hid  herself,  in  seeming  pen- 
si  veness,  behind  a  dense  black  cloud,  as  though  reluc- 
tant to  look  on  such  a  scene ;  and  the  feathered  tribe, 
that  were  wont,  in  those  warm  nights  of  summer,  to 
melodize  the  breeze,  retired  far  into  the  distant  woods, 
there  to  tune  their  notes  of  sorrow.  Mortal  language 
cannot  array  such  a  scene  in  its  garb  of  blackest  wo. 
Some  carcasses  were  also  thrown.  These,  when  in  the 
air,  are  not  unlike  a  fiery  man  soaring  above.  They  are 
sent  to  burn  houses,  or  blow  up  magazines.  Far  and 
wide  they  stretch  forth  their  claws  of  death  ;  and  well 
might  the  poor  natives  call  them  devils  of  the  night  or 
fiends  of  the  clouds.  To  complete  this  dreadful  scene,  < 
the  roaring  congreves  ran  along  the  bastion's  top  break- 
ing legs  and  arms  with  their  shaking  tails.  Nothing 
could  be  more  grand  to  the  eye,  or  more  affecting  to 
the  sympathizing  heart,  than  this  horrid  spectacle.' 

This  storming  was  successful,   and  the  writer  of  the'' 
preceding  account  soon  found  his  way   into  the   fort,  to 
witness  the  havoc  which  he  and  his  comrades  had  made. 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES.  537 

The  description  of  the  scene  thus  brought  to  view  is  too 
dreadful  to  be  here  described. 

3.  The  third  species  of  ordnance  which  we  shall  de- 
scribe  are  Howitzers.     They   are  intermediate  in  their 
construction  between   the  cannon  and  the   mortar,  and 
are  designed  to  combine,  as  far  as  they  can  be  combin- 
ed, the   purposes  of  both.      Like  the  mortar  they  are 
used    for    discharging  the  various   kinds  of  shells,  and 
they  comprise  a  much  greater  extent  of  aim  as  they  can 
be  pointed  at  any  angle  of  elevation.     They  are  much 
more  portable  also.     They  can,  in  addition  to  this,   be 
used  like  cannon  for  the  discharge  of   solid  balls.     In 
fact,  a  shell  is  often  discharged  at  a  low  elevation,  so  as 
to  act  at  first  by  its  impulse  like  a  solid  ball,  and  after- 
wards by  its  explosion. 

4.  The  fourth   species  of  ordnance  is  the  Carronade, 
designed  for  throwing  cored  balls  as  they  are  called, — 
that  is,  hollow   and  empty.      It  is  found   that   when  a 
ball  passes  through  a  ship's  side  with  great  velocity,  it 
makes  a  smooth  and  well  denned  hole.     If  on  the  other 
hand  it  passes  with  a  slow  motion,  it  tears  and  splinters 
the  planks  and  beams  in  such  a  manner  as  to  produce  a 
much  greater   injury.      To   reduce   the   force   then  by 
which  the  ball  would  strike,   by  diminishing  the  weight, 
while  the  size  remains  the  same,  is  the  object  gained  by 
the  carronade.     It  is  much  used  in  naval  warfare. 

We  cannot  here  enter  at  all  into  a  description  of  the 
endless  variety  in  construction  and  use  which  portable 
fire-arms  assume.  For  they  do  not  differ  at  all  in  prin- 
ciple, whatever  is  the  object  for  which  they  are  design- 
ed, whether  to  become  weapons  of  the  infantry  in  the 
field  of  battle,  or  the  means  of  health  and  recreation  to 
the  sportsman,  or  a  protection  to  the  traveller  from  the 
highwayman's  attack,  or  the  instrument  by  which  the 
duellist  may  gratify  his  unhappy  revenge. 

The  rifle,  however,  deserves  a  notice,  both  on  account 
of  the  beauty  of  its  theory,  and  the  excellence  of  its 
practical  operation.  One  of  the  greatest  causes  of  error 
in  aiming  a  common  musket  or  fowling  piece,  is,  that  the 
ball  generally  receives,  on  leaving  the  piece,  by  unequal 
friction  against  the  sides  of  the  barrel,  a  rotatory  mo- 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xxn.  48* 


538  MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 

tion  which  affects  the  course  of  the  ball  in  a  manner 
which  depends  on  the  direction  in  which  this  rotatory 
motion  takes  place.  Now  this  will  evidently  depend  on 
the  side  of  the  barrel  on  which  the  ball  accidentally 
rubbed  on  issuing  from  the  gun.  It  is  for  this  reason 
that  if  a  barrel  is  bent  in  any  direction,  the  ball  which 
issues  from  it,  will,  as  it  is  said,  be  deflected  in  the  con- 
trary quarter.  There  will  always  be,  from  this  cause,  a 
deviation  from  a  straight  line,  in  the  direction  of  the  ball, 
as  the  axis  of  rotation  will  always  be  perpendicular  to 
the  axis  of  the  gun. 

In  order  to  remedy  this  difficulty  the  idea  was  con- 
ceived of  giving  the  ball  a  rotatory  motion,  whose  axis 
should  be  coincident  with  the  axis  of  the  gun.  This 
would  prevent  effectually  any  other  rotation,  while  it 
would  itself  occasion  no  deflection.  This  object  is  ac- 
complished by  cutting  spiral  grooves  on  the  interior  of 
the  barrel,  which  made  one  turn  from  the  breech  to  the 
muzzle,  so  that  the  ball,  in  passing  through  the  barrel, 
revolves  once,  on  that  axis  which  coincides  with  the  axis, 
of  the  barrel.  It  will  of  course  continue  in  this  state 
of  revolution  through  its  whole  flight.  In  order  that  the 
ball  should  so  adapt  itself  to  the  grooves  of  the  gun,  it 
must  be  driven  down  with  considerable  force.  Its  fric- 
tion, consequently  in  passing  out  will  be  much  greater, 
and  to  guard  against  the  increased  danger  of  bursting, 
which  this  will  occasion,  the  barrel  must  be  made  thick- 
er and  stronger. 


The  nature  of  the  motion  of  projected  balls  has  been 
an  object  of  very  assiduous  inquiry,  especially  by  the  na- 
tions of  Europe,  who  have  been  ambitious  of  great  mili- 
tary power.  For  many  centuries  the  art  of  gunnery 
was  founded  entirely  upon  practice.  The  little  devia- 
tion from  a  straight  line  which  the  path  of  the  arrow  or 
the  spear  presented,  could  be  easily  estimated  after  re- 
peated trials,  and  an  allowance  sufficiently  accurate  for 
ordinary  purposes,  was  easily  made.  And  in  regard  to 
those  great  engines  which  the  ancients  constructed,  in 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES.  539 

which  the  course  of  the  projectile  was  an  arc  of  very 
considerable  curvature,  they  were  not  in  sufficiently  con- 
stant and  universal  use  to  attract  much  attention  to  the 
nature  of  the  motions  to  whicli  they  gave  rise.  Indeed, 
had  this  nature  been  well  ascertained,  the  difficulty  of 
accurately  aiming  machines  of  such  construction,  would 
have  prevented  the  engineers  of  those  days  from  deriving 
much  practical  benefit  from  the  knowledge.  In  later 
days,  however,  when  trains  of  artillery  of  great  magni- 
tude and  variety,  have  become  an  essential  part  of  the 
retinue  of  every  army,  and  when  the  management  of 
their  operations  have  become  one  of  the  greatest  objects 
of  attention,  as  a  means  of  attack  and  defence,  at  every 
battle,  and  at  every  siege,  —  military  men  and  military 
governments  have  made  great  efforts  to  discover  the  true 
theory  of  the  motions  in  question,  taking  into  considera- 
tion the  resistance  of  the  air,  which  we  neglected  in  the 
view  of  this  subject,  presented  at  the  commencement  of 
this  tract.  Courses  of  experiments,  the  most  complete 
and  the  most  accurate,  have  been  made  at  great  expense, 
especially  under  the  direction  of  the  governments  of 
France  and  England.  And  the  attention  of  the  greatest 
mathematicians  and  mechanical  philosophers,  has  been 
devoted  to  the  problem  which  this  subject  presents.  The 
result,  however,  has  but  partially  rewarded  these  efforts. 
There  are  so  many  circumstances  varying  by  complicated 
laws,  affecting  the  phenomenon  in  question,  that  but  lit- 
tle progress  has  been  made,  and  after  all  the  experiments 
and  all  the  mathematics,  a  very  large  part  of  the  iron 
and  the  lead  is  projected  in  vain.  Galileo  was  one  of 
the  first  who  made  any  progress  in  examining  the  sub- 
ject. He  discovered  from  the  nature  of  the  two  elements 
of  the  nature  of  a  projectile,  viz.  the  projectile  force,  and 
the  force  of  gravity,  that  the  course  described  by  it  must 
be  a  parabola,  as  shown  already  in  this  tract. 

On  instituting  experiments,  however,  it  was  soon  found 
that  the  fact  differed  widely  from  theory.  The  place 
upon  which  a  ball  fell  after  its  discharge  from  a  gun,  es- 
pecially where  the  velocity  was  great,  was  found  to  be 
very  different  from  what  it  would  have  been,  if  the  laws 
of  the  parabola  had  governed  its  movements.  And  this 


540  MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 

inconsistency  between  hypothesis  and  observation  was 
for  a  long  time,  a  great  perplexity  to  mathematicians  and 
gunners.  No  one  could  dispute  the  demonstration,  and 
it  was  still  more  difficult  to  deny  the  fact.  It  did  indeed 
occur  to  some  that  the  resistance  of  the  air  might  have 
some  influence  upon  the  motion,  while  it  was  resolutely 
denied  by  the  most  weighty  authorities  that  so  rare  and 
tenuous  a  substance  could  produce  any  sensible  effect. 
One  writer  endeavors  to  remove  the  difficulty  by  suppos- 
ing that  a  ball  projected  with  great  velocity,  describes  in 
the  first  part  of  its  track,  a  straight  line  from  the  end  of 
which  the  parabolic  track  commenced.  During  the 
straight  part  of  its  track  the  projectile  force  only  could 
operate  of  course.  This  imagined  straight  line,  the  dis- 
coverer called  the  line  of  the  impulse  of  the  fire. 

Some  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's  calculations  on  the  sub- 
ject of  the  resistance  of  fluids  led  him  to  suppose  that 
the  influence  of  the  air  was  the  true  cause  of  the  devia- 
tions from  the  parabolic  path.  This  has  been  since  as- 
certained to  be  the  case.  To  determine,  however,  the 
law  by  which  this  influence  acts,  and  the  degree  of  de- 
viation which  it  will  in  each  particular  case  produce, 
is  one  of  the  most  difficult  problems  in  mathematics. 
The  resistance  varies  with  the  velocity,  increasing  very 
rapidly  as  the  velocity  increases.  Now  this  velocity  is 
very  irregularly  varied,  changing  at  every  instant,  and 
changing  in  a  very  different  law,  according  to  the  angle 
of  elevation  at  which  it  is  thrown. 

Many  experiments  have  been  instituted  to  determine 
many  points  of  practical  importance  in  regard  to  the  con- 
struction and  use  of  ordnance.  The  size  and  proportion 
of  the  parts  of  the  several  species ;  the  quantity  of  pow- 
der which  produces  a  maximum  effect ;  the  angle  of 
elevation  at  which  the  range  is  greatest,  and  the  propor- 
tion which  the  velocity  of  the  ball  bears  to  the  quantity 
of  powder,  the  length  of  the  piece,  and  the  nature  of 
the  ball.  Various  instruments  have  been  contrived  for 
the  purpose  of  facilitating  these  inquiries,  which  it  is 
unnecessary  particularly  to  describe. 

Neither  mathematical  calculation  however,  nor  experi- 
ment have  been  able  to  ascertain  with  any  great  precision 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 


541 


the  path  of  a  projectile,  through  a  resisting  medium  like 
the  air.  The  practice  of  gunnery,  therefore,  depends  al- 
most entirely  upon  the  skill  which  the  gunner  acquires 
by  repeated  trials.  Some  experiments  have,  however, 
given  important  and  useful  results.  The  following  table 
presents  the  reader  with  the  comparative  effects  produc- 
ed by  different  charges,  and  different  degrees  of  eleva- 
tion. The  ball  used  was  of  one  pound  weight. 


Powder. 

Elevation 
of  Gun. 

Velocity 
of  Ball. 

Range. 

Time 
of  Flight. 

O'£. 

2 
4 
8 
12 
2 

IS" 

15° 
15° 
15° 

45° 

feet. 
860 
1230 
1610 
1680 
860 

4100 
5100 
6000 
6700 

5100 

9' 
12 
144 

15i 
21 

By  this  tabla  it  appears  that  with  two  ounces  of  pow- 
der, the  ball  moved  with  a  velocity  of  860  feet  per  second, 
whereas  with  twelve  ounces,  which  is  six  times  as  much 
powder,  it  moved  only  1680,  or  about  twice  as  fast. 
With  the  two  ounces,  its  range,  or  the  distance  to  which 
it  went  was  4100  feet,  and  with  six  times  as  much  pow- 
der, only  6700,  which  is  not  nearly  twice  as  far.  The 
reason  is,  that  with  great  velocities  the  resistance  increases 
very  rapidly.  The  resistance  is  as  the  square  of  the 
velocity,  as  it  is  mathematically  expressed  ;  that  is,  doub- 
ling the  velocity,  the  resistance  is  increased  fourfold ;  and 
three  times  the  velocity,  gives  nine  times  the  resistance. 
Indeed  it  can  be  proved  that  with  a  certain  velocity, 
which  can  without  much  difficulty  be  given,  a  ball,  will 
move  on  so  fast  that  the  air  will  not  close  over  it  instant- 
ly, but  there  will  be  a  vacuum  behind  it.  In  this  case 
the  ball  will  be  resisted  at  the  rate  of  fifteen  pounds  to 
the  square  inch,  which  would  make  in  a  ball,  four  inches 
in  diameter,  bctioecn  150  and  200  pounds.  Such  a  load 
as  this  must  soon  stop  any  ball ;  and  it  is  found  that 
whenever  a  ball  is  thrown  with  such  a  velocity,  it  almost 
instantly  becomes  retarded,  until  it  is  reduced  to  a  much 
smaller  velocity,  so  that  the  resistance  will  be  less. 

Various  instruments  have  been  devised  for  measuring 


542  MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 

the  incipient  velocity  of  a  cannon  or  musket  ball,  or  the 
elastic  force  of  various  kinds  of  powder.  We  shall  de- 
scribe one,  which  is  called  the  eprouvette.  We  must  first, 
however,  state  that  when  gunpowder  explodes,  the  ex- 
pansive force  is  exerted  in  every  direction.  It  acts  not 
only  against  the  ball,  but  against  the  sides  and  back  of 
the  gun.  The  force  which  it  exerts  each  side  is  extin- 
guished by  the  strength  of  the  metal,  but  by  the  force 
exerted  against  the  back  or  breech  of  the  gun,  the  gun 
is  thrown  backward  as  much  as  the  ball  is  thrown  for- 
ward. We  do  not  mean  as  far  or  as  siviftly,  but  that 
the  whole  amount  of  motion  is  as  great.  That  is,  if  the 
cannon  or  gun  weighs  one  hundred  pounds  and  the  ball 
one,  the  cannon  will  be  thrown  back  one  hundredth  part 
as  far.  This  is  called  the  recoil,  and  upon  the  well 
known  mathematical  principle  that  the  action  and  reac- 
tion are  equal,  it  is  the  same  in  amount  as  the  motion  of 
the  ball. 

The  eprouvette  measures  the  recoil.  It  is  an  instru- 
ment contrived  for  the  purpose  of  comparing  the  strength 
of  different  kinds  of  gunpowder.  It  consists  of  a 
small  brass  gun,  about  two  and  a  half  feet  long,  suspend- 
ed by  a  metallic  stem  or  rod,  turning  by  an  axis  on  a 
firm  and  strong  frame,  by  means  of  which  the  piece 
moves  round  in  a  circular  arch.  A  little  below  the  axis, 
the  stem  divides  into  two  branches,  reaching  down  to  the 
gun,  to  which  the  lower  ends  of  the  branches  are  fixed, 
the  one  near  the  muzzle,  the  other  near  the  breech  of 
the  piece.  The  upper  end  of  the  stem  is  firmly  attach- 
ed to  the  axis,  which  turns  very  freely  by  its  extremities 
in  the  sockets  of  this  supporting  frame  ;  by  which  means 
the  gun  and  stem  vibrate  together  in  a  vertical  plane, 
with  a  very  small  degree  of  friction.  The  piece  is  charg- 
ed with  a  small  quantity  of  powder,  (usually  about  two 
ounces,)  without  any  ball,  and  then  fired ;  by  the  force 
of  the  explosion  the  piece  is  made  to  recoil  or  vibrate, 
describing  an  arch  or  angle,  which  will  be  the  greater  or 
less,  according  to  the  quantity  or  strength  of  the  powder. 

To  measure  the  quantity  of  recoil,  and  consequently 
the  strength  of  the  powder,  a  circular  brazen  or  silvered 
arch  of  a  convenient  extent,  and  of  a  radius  equal  to  ita 


MILITARY    PROJECTILES.  543 

distance  below  the  axis,  is  fixed  against  the  descending 
branches  of  the  stem,  and  graduated  into  divisions, 
according  to  the  purpose  required  to  be  answered  by  the 
machine. 

The  divisions  in  these  scales  are  pointed  out  by  an  in- 
dex, which  is  carried  on  the  arch  during  the  vibration, 
and  then  stopping  there,  shows  the  actual  extent  of  the 
vibration. 

Another  contrivance  which  has  been  resorted  to,  to 
measure  the  force  of  a  ball  thrown  by  gunpowder,  is  call- 
ed the  Ballistic  pendulum.  It  measures  the  force,  not 
by  the  recoil,  but  by  the  force  given  to  a  heavy  body  sus- 
pended like  a  pendulum,  and  against  which  the  ball  is 
thrown. 

*  The  block  of  wood  which  is  struck  by  the  ball,  in- 
stead of  being  left  at  liberty  to  move  straight  forward  in 
the  direction  of  the  ball's  motion,  is  suspended  like  the 
weight  of  the  vibrating  pendulum  of  a  clock,  by  a  strong 
iron  stem  (with  adequate  braces,)  having  a  horizontal 
axis  at  the  top,  on  the  ends  of  which  it  vibrates  freely 
when  struck  by  the  ball.  This  large  pendulum,  after  re- 
ceiving the  blow,  is  penetrated  by  the  ball  to  a  small 
depth,  and  by  reason  of  the  motion  communicated,  os- 
cillates round  its  axis,  describing  an  arch,  which  is 
greater  or  less  according  to  the  magnitude  of  the  impul- 
sion. From  the  extent  of  the  arch  described  by  the  vi- 
brating pendulum,  the  velocity  of  any  point  of  the  block 
can  be  readily  computed. 

'  Several  blocks  of  this  kind,  varying  in  weight,  from 
COO  pounds  up  to  about  twentyfive  hundred  pounds,  were 
constructed  and  employed  under  the  direction  of  Dr  Hut- 
ton,  for  the  purpose  of  ascertaining  the  initial  velocities, 
as  well  as  the  velocities  at  different  distances  from  the 
mouth  of  the  piece,  of  balls  weighing  from  one  to  sixteen 
pounds.' 

We  have  thus  presented  to  our  readers  the  prominent 
facts  in  regard  to  this  branch  of  human  skill.  The  sub- 
ject of  war  is  at  best  a  very  melancholy  one.  It  is  never 
pleasant  to  consider  the  efforts  which  human  ingenuity 
has  made  to  facilitate  the  destruction  of  property  and 


544  MILITARY    PROJECTILES. 

life,  and  to  arm  passion  and  revenge,  the  usual  animat- 
ing spirit  of  war,  with  their  deadliest  power.  We  have 
not  entered  upon  this  subject  for  the  purpose  of  awaken- 
ing a  military  spirit  —  or  cherishing  a  love  of  war,  —  but 
simply  to  give  that  degree  of  information  which  every 
general  reader  should  possess,  in  order  that  he  may  un- 
derstand the  allusions  with  which  all  history  is  full. 

It  is  sad  to  reflect  how  universally  the  history  of  na- 
tions is  a  history  of  war.  Almost  every  page  is  a  de- 
scription of  internal  commotions  or  foreign  struggles,  in 
which  we  are  continually  presented  with  the  dreadful 
spectacle  of  thousands  meeting  in  the  field,  to  mangle 
and  to  kill  each  other,  by  every  means  which  ingenuity 
can  invent,  and  expense  obtain,  and  numbers  almost 
countless,  apply.  From  long  habit  we  can  read  of  these 
things  with  little  emotion,  —  but  how  few  of  the  readers 
of  this  tract,  could  actually  see  the  bursting  shell  do  its 
work  upon  a  crowd  of  his  fellow-men,  —  or  behold  a 
single  individual  shot  down  before  his  door,  by  a  mus- 
ket ball,  without  horror.  But  what  is  one  shell,  —  or 
the  shriek  of  one  single  victim  of  a  musket  ball,  com- 
pared with  the  scenes  to  which  every  reader  of  history 
must  be  familiarized.  It  is  better,  however,  if  we  are 
to  look  at  these  dreadful  exhibitions  of  human  guilt  at 
all,  that  we  should  look  at  them  understandjngly  ;  we 
can  then  better  estimate  their  true  character,  —  and 
more  correctly  judge  of  their  nature  and  effects. 


SCIENTIFIC    TRACTS. 

NUMBER    XXIII. 


RAIL-ROADS. 

THE  most  simple  inventions  have  been  among  the  most 
important,  though  they  soon  became  common  and  ceased 
to  attract  notice. 

The  cord  and  pulley  must  have  caused  an  improve- 
ment upon  mere  brute  force,  as  astonishing  in  its  day  as 
its  multiplied  action  in  spinning  machinery  has  been  sur- 
prising in  our  time  ;  then  it  was  that  man  could  act  where 
he  was  not. 

The  wheel  itself  now  so  simple,  so  component  a  part 
of  daily  action,  was  once  an  invention  of  no  ordinary 
mind. 

The  cask  or  common  hogshead  was  an  immense  stride 
in  commercial  facilities.  By  this,  a  man  readily  conveys 
over  a  level  space,  a  ton  weight,  which  would  otherwise 
require  twenty  men  to  move,  and  on  a  slight  inclination, 
he  commands  a  self-acting  power  attainable  in  no  other 
mode  but  by  machinery. 

In  the  history  of  locomotion  there  is  much  of  this  sim- 
ple invention,  less  noticed  than  its  value  demands.  If 
there  is  anything  that  distinguishes  one  people  from 
another,  it  is,  eminently,  the  power  of  intercommunica- 
tion, and  yet  in  principle  how  simple  the  means. 

COMPARED    WITH    CANALS. 

The  knowledge  and  use  of  canals  appear  to  have  been 
of  long  standing.  The  ancients  (though  ignorant  of 
locks,)  were  familiar  with  the  simple  canal  or  cut  on  one 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  xxin.         49 


546  RAIL-ROADS. 

level.  In  China,  however,  the  canal  from  Canton  to  Pe- 
kin  with  locks  or  inclined  planes,  is  estimated  to  pass 
through  825  miles,  and  is  supposed  to  have  existed  since 
the  tenth  century.  A  canal  from  the  Nile  to  the  Red 
Sea,  connecting  the  eastern  waters  with  the  Mediterra- 
nean, was  completed  in  the  sixteenth  century,  after  im- 
mense labor  for  many  years ;  it  was  scarcely  used,  and 
being  cut  through  a  sandy  country  was  soon  obliterated. 
The  Dutch  have  flourished  for  centuries  beside  their 
canals.  In  France  the  canal  of  Languedoc  in  16SO,  and 
in  England  the  Sauky  canal  from  Manchester  to  Liver- 
pool in  1755,  appear  to  have  been  the  first  of  importance 
in  those  distinguished  countries. 

In  modern  times  the  art  of  canalling  has  undergone 
but  slight  improvement,  and  with  the  exception  of  some 
alteration  in  locks,  it  appears  to  have  started  into  a  sys- 
tem almost  at  once. 

There  are  two  objections  which  exist  against  canals  as 
a  system.  .FYr.stf,  the  necessity  of  a  supply  of  water  at  the 
summit  levels  or  highest  points,  and  second,  the  nature  of 
water  as  a  resisting  medium  to  bodies  passing  through 
it.  The  former  cannot  be  obviated  by  any  effort  of 
science  or  invention,  and  canals,  therefore,  can  only  be 
located  where  a  constant  supply  of  water  can  be  at  com- 
mand, on  the  highest  levels.  The  second  objection  may 
be  diminished,  but  only  to  a  very  limited  extent,  such  as 
"  by  the  form  of  a  boat,  &-c.  The  usual  rate  of  a  canal- 
boat  for  goods  is  but  two  to  two  and  a  half  miles  each 
hour,  and  for  passengers  three  to  four  miles.  On  the 
Delaware  and  Chesapeake  canal,  passage  boats  have  re- 
cently been  propelled  by  an  increased  number  of  horses 
at  six  and  eight  miles,  but  from  the  motion  produced  in  the 
water,  and  the  consequent  injury  upon  the  canal,  it  is 
stated  that  the  tolls  of  such  boats  will  not  repair  the 
damage. 

There  is  a  third  objection  which  attaches  with  pecu- 
liar force  to  this  country.  Canals  in  New  England  are 
rendered  useless  by  ice  often  more  than  one  third  of  the 
year.  A  rail-road  on  the  contrary  may  at  a  small  ex- 
pense be  kept  in  operation  the  whole,  of  the  year,  except, 
occasionally,  in  the  northeastern  portion  of  the  Union. 


RAIL-ROADS.  547 


The  Honesdale  rail-road  in  Pennsylvania  is  kept  open 
through  the  winter. 

Notwithstanding  such  difficulties,  however,  the  long 
and  well  tried  utility  of  canals,  their  superior  facilities  for 
conveying  heavy  weights,  which  cannot  readily  be  di- 
vided, the  passing  from  one  level  to  another  at  a  trifling 
expense,  will  still  give  them  honorable  employment  where 
they  have  been  or  may  be  readily  constructed.  Like  an 
old  and  respected  friend,  they  are  not  to  be  rudely  pass- 
ed, for  a  new  and  more  fascinating  acquaintance. 


It  is  a  singular  fact  that  the  entire  principle  of  the 
railway  was  introduced  into  England  long  before  canals, 
if  we  except  an  unimportant  cut  of  a  mile  or  two  mad« 
near  Cambridge  by  the  Romans. 

In  some  of  the  principal  collieries  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, the  use  of  the  wooden  rail  for  conveying  coal  car- 
riages from  the  pit  to  the  place  of  shipment,  was  adopted 
as  far  back  as  1076,  and  possibly  thirty  or  forty  years 
prior  to  that  time.  It  was  not,  however,  till  the  celebrat- 
ed joint  stock  year  of  1825,  that  the  subject  excited 
much  interest,  when  the  projection  of  a  railway  from 
Manchester  to  Liverpool  gave  a  new  impulse,  and  the 
effects  appear  to  be  working  a  complete  revolution  in  the 
business  of  locomotion. 

The  railway  and  its  adaptation  for  a  moving  power, 
simple  as  it  is  in  principle,  is  eminently  a  child  of  science 
and  the  arts.  The  improvements  which  have  from  time 
to  time  been  adopted,  and  the  inventions  which  have 
added  continually  to  its  merits,  have  been  long  and  grad- 
ually overcoming  the  obstacles  which  this  species  of  lo- 
comotion presented. 

THE    RAIL. 

We  are  not  informed  that  any  other  country  has  claim- 
ed with  England  the  use  of  the  railway  until  within  a 
few  years.  At  its  early  adoption  in  1G7G,  two  continued 
wooden  rails  or  strong  pieces  about  four  feet  apart,  were 


548  RAIL-ROADS. 


laid  on  cross  sleepers  even  with  the  ground.  In  process 
of  time  the  rails  were  found  more  convenient,  at  a  small 
elevation,  clear  from  dirt  and  other  accidental  obstruc- 
tions ;  and  the  renewing  the  rails  when  worn  down,  be- 
coming inconvenient,  the  contrivance  of  a  scantling  or 
upper  rail  was  adopted,  and  this  being  pinned  upon  the 
principal  strong  piece  could  be  easily  replaced.  At  this 
period  wooden  wheels  were  used,  and  the  load  conveyed 
was  about  two  and  a  half  times  that  on  the  ordinary  roads. 
The  inclination  of  the  rail  was  graduated  merely  for  this 
draft,  which  appeared  to  satisfy  all  the  expectations  of  the 
period.  After  many  years  thin  iron  plates  were  placed 
upon  the  wooden  scantling,  wherever  the  friction  became 
great  from  turnings  or  acclivities.  Rail-roads  continued 
much  in  this  state  until  about  1776,  when  cast  iron  rails 
were  introduced  in  the  shape  of  the  '  plate  rail,'  or  tram 
rail-road,  having  the  flange  or  rim  upon  the  rail.  All 
rails  requiring  the  flange  to  be  upon  the  wheel  are  called 
'  edge  rails.'  Cast  iron  wheels  were  first  used  with  the 
iron  rails,  and  it  is  only  about  thirty  years  since  that  stone 
supports  became  common  instead  of  the  wooden  sleepers. 

In  1790  the  edge  rail  was  invented,  and  this  is  now 
most  approved.  Square  bars  of  wrought  iron  were  tried 
about  tvventyfive  years  since  with  success  ;  and  iron  roll- 
ed nearly  into  the  form  of  the  edge  rail  was  also  in  use 
about  ten  years  since. 

From  some  extensive  experiments  made  in  England  on 
the  comparative  strength  of  cast  and  wrought  iron,  the 
results  were  in  favor  of  the  latter.  The  greater  vibration, 
however,  is  a  serious  objection. 

The  cast  iron  rails  of  certain  length  nveighing  fifty- 
seven  pounds  per  yard  required  seven  and  a  half  tons  to 
break  them. 

The  wrought  iron  rails  of  same  length  weighing  twen- 
tyeight  pounds  per  yard  required  six  and  a  half  tons  to 
overcome  their  permanent  elasticity,  and  in  this  case 
there  was  a  deflection  or  bend  of  one  tenth  of  an  inch  in 
four  feet.  These  rails  were  made  for  four  tons  on  wheels, 
and  it  appears  that  the  absolute  strength  of  the  rail  should 
exceed  the  ordinary  strain  or  load  at  least  as  three  to  one. 
The  strongest  wrought  iron  rails  required  are  thirty  five 


549 


pounds  to  the  yard.  It  is  found  in  the  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  rail-road,  that  the  very  rapid  succession  of 
heavy  carriages  produces  in  consequence  of  a  vibration, 
a  much  more  destructive  effect  upon  the  rails  than  was 
anticipated.  It  is  a  singular  fact,  that  the  rolling  motion 
upon  the  wrought  iron  rail  prevents  oxydation  or  rust. 
In  Massachusetts  it  is  proposed  to  substitute  a  running 
stone  foundation  of  perfectly  even  surface,  on  which  a  thin 
rolled  iron  plate  is  to  be  laid  about  two  and  a  half  inches 
wide  and  half  an.  inch  thick;  this  plate  is  to  be  bolted 
down  to  the  stone.  The  elasticity  of  this,  being  less 
than  that  of  wood,  renders  it  preferable,  and  the  plan  has 
already  been  partially  adopted  with  success.  The  expe- 
rience, however,  at  Manchester  may  suggest  the  proprie- 
ty of  greater  thickness  in  the  iron  plate.  To  overcome 
the  frost,  so  great  an  obstacle  in  our  country  to  works  of 


this  description,  it  is  proposed  to  lay  deep  foundations  for 
the  stone  rail. 

In  a  railway,  the  first  principles  are  to  form  it  through- 
out its  whole  length,  as  nearly  upon  a  level  and  in  as  di- 
rect a  line  as  circumstances  will  permit  .  This  is  obvious, 
for  an  acclivity  for  one  hundred  feet  on  a  road  of  one 
hundred  miles,  would  prevent  a  load  over  the  whole  ex- 
tent greater  than  that  limited  by  the  ascent  itself,  unless 
at  the  cost  of  unloading  or  of  extra  power.  This  uni- 
form level  or  gentle  inclination  is  attained  by  deep  cut- 
tings through  hills,  by  long  embankments  in  the  valleys, 
and  by  bridges  over  deep  gullies  and  streams. 

The  width  required  for  a  public  and  double  railway 
for  extensive  traffic,  is  seldom  over  twenty  feet,  and  for 
a  single  track  twelve  feet,  far  less  than  that  required  for 
ordinary  canals.  The  horse  track  is  generally  in  the 
middle. 

It  is  found  that  an  ascent  of  twentysix  feet  in  the  mile 
makes  no  perceptible  inconvenience  in  the  railway,  and 
that  anything  less  than  sixty  or  eighty  feet  produces  but 
slight  difficulty.  In  a  canal  on  the  contrary,  four  inches 
in  the  mile  is  the  greatest  allowance  that  can  be  made, 
even  in  feeding  sections,  absolute  level  being  the  rule. 
The  Mississippi,  at  New  Orleans  even  during  the  freshet 
falls  but  one  and  a  half  inches  each  mile.  When  it  is 

VOL.  i.  —  NO.  XXIH,         49* 


550  RAIL-ROADS. 


impracticable  or  unadvisable  to  construct  the  railway 
within  the  above  limits,  two  or  more  such  sections  are 
connected  by  an  inclined  plane,  and  this  united  plan  of 
travelling  sections  and  inclined  planes  where  stationary 
power  is  used  may  be  continued  over  any  obstacles  and 
in  any  direction. 

When  the  traffic  is  all  one  way  as  at  coal  mines,  and 
the  steep  planes  descending  in  that  direction,  the  loaded 
carriages  in  their  progress  draw  up  those  which  are 
empty,  by  gravitation,  and  the  planes  are  called  self-act- 
ing. When  the  plane  is  ascending  in  the  direction  of 
the  traffic  an  extra  moving  power  is  then  required  ;  and 
this  is  generally,  from  effect  and  economy,  the  steam  en- 
gine. A  continuous  or  endless  chain  is  stretched  over 
rollers,  to  one  of  which  the  engine  power  is  communi- 
cated, and  the  carriages  being  hooked  on  to  the  chain 
are  easily  conveyed  up  or  down.  It  is  evident  that  sev- 
eral engines  may  act  in  succession  on  the  same  plane, 
and  the  planes  are,  therefore,  sometimes  a  mile  in  length 
and  may  be  repeated  when  requisite.  There  is  also  no 
limit  to  the  angle  of  acclivity,  except  the  inconvenience 
of  preserving  the  load,  and  where  the  situation  admits 
the  carriages  may  even  be  raised  perpendicularly. 

At  Quebec  there  is  an  inclined  plane  from  the  top  of 
Cape  Diamond  to  the  St  Lawrence,  500  feet  long,  and 
at  an  angle  of  fortyfive  degrees.  A  steam  engine  at  the 
bottom  works  an  endless  chain,  and  stone',  cannon,  &c, 
are  readily  conveyed  on  carriages  at  that  angle.  It  waa 
at  first  worked  by  horses  at  the  top. 

Of  the  power  of  the  inclined  plane  there  is  no  rea- 
sonable limit,  where  velocity  is  not  an  object.  Thus 
merchant  vessels  are  now  drawn  entirely  out  of  the  wa- 
ter in  an  hour  or  two,  upon  an  inclined  plane  or  marine 
railway,  by  a  set  of  capstans,  and  ships  of  war,  by  a 
common  steam  engine,  in  the  same  time. 

THE    CARRIAGE. 

The  simple  car  upon  four  wooden  wheels  was  at  first 
the  vehicle  used  upon  the  railway.  This,  being  heavily 
laden,  was  slowly  drawn  by  a  horse.  About  the  tim« 


RAIL-ROADS.  551 


that  iron  rails  were  first  used,  the  weight  came  to  be  di- 
rided  into  moderate  loads  upon  several  cars. 

We  shall  only  notice  those  in  present  use,  the  form  of 
which  varies  according  to  the  nature  of  the  load.  The 
four  wheels  are  of  cast  iron  and  of  one  size,  generally 
about  three  feet  in  diameter,  but  varying  from  eighteen 
inches  to  four  feet.  The  rims  of  the  wheels  are  now 
usually  case  hardened,  by  which  the  friction  and  wear 
are  much  reduced,  and  a  true  circular  form  more  readily 
preserved.  On  the  '  plate  rail'  the  wheel  is  plain,  but 
on  the  '  edge  rail'  a  flange  or  rim  is  required  on  the  inner 
side  of  each  wheel  to  preserve  the  carriage  in  its  track. 
The  axle-trees  are  universally  of  wrought  iron,  the  square 
ends  being  fixed  into  the  wheels  for  steadiness,  and  the 
axles,  therefore,  revolve  either  on  cast  iron  bearings 
upon  the  carriage,  or  on  springs,  or  on  a  suspending 
chain,  as  the  case  may  require.  The  weight  usually 
placed  upon  one  car,  varies  from  one  to  four  tons,  and 
twenty  or  thirty,  sometimes  fifty  of  these  cars  are  con- 
nected together,  and  drawn  along  by  a  simple  moving 
power.  The  motion  on  a  descending  plane  is  regulated 
by  a  brake  or  friction  lever,  also  called  a  '  convoy.' 

MOVING    POWER. 

Dugald  Stewart  has  remarked  of  printing,  that  in  the 
fifteenth  century,  the  wants  of  mankind  were  such  that 
if  Faust  and  others  had  not  invented  the  art,  somebody 
else  would.  So  we  may  say  of  locomotion,  in  this  cen- 
tury, that  as  the  horse  cannot  satisfy  the  wants,  in  veloci- 
ty, something  of  greater  epeed  must  be  brought  forward. 
From  1802  to  180(5,  appear  the  first  effective  experiments 
with  the  locomotive  steam  engine.  It  was  not,  however, 
supposed  possible  that  the  friction  or  adherence  of  the 
plain  wheels  of  such  carriages  upon  the  rail,  could  be  suf- 
ficient to  allow  any  great  weight  to  be  drawn  after  them, 
and,  therefore,  the  cumbersome  appendage  of  cog  wheels, 
and  racket  wheels,  continuous  and  endless  chains,  pro- 
pelling levers,  &c,  &c,  continued  to  perplex  the  minda 
of  engineers  until  about  1814,  when  it  was  first  found 


552  HAIL-ROADS. 


that  the  adhesion  of  the  locomotive  carriage  with  its 
plain  cast  iron  wheels  was  adequate  for  every  purpose  on 
ordinary  railways.  The  improvement  consequent  upon 
this,  was  effected  by  Mr  Stephenson  in  the  north  of  Eng- 
land, and  until  very  recently,  such  engines  with  some 
unimportant  alterations  have  been  generally  used  where 
fuel  is  cheap.  These  locomotive  carriages  draw  upwards 
of  100  tons  on  a  level  at  four  miles  the  hour,  and  on  an 
average  forty  tons  at  six  miles,  performing  the  work  of 
twelve  to  sixteen  horses.  The  engines  weigh  from  six 
to  twelve  tons  and  cost  about  $  1600. 

The  Liverpool  and  Manchester  rail-road  was  originally 
intended  for  passengers  principally.  It  is  now  complet- 
ed, and  2500  passengers  have  been  conveyed  over  it  in 
d  single  day.  It  has  four  sets  of  tracks,  two  for  rapid 
passage,  and  two  for  heavier  burdens  each  way. 

In  October,  1829,  a  prize  of  .£500  was  awarded  by  the 
Directors  of  the  work  to  the  successful  locomotive  steam 
engine  the  '  Rocket.'  The  competition  then  called  forth, 
issued  in  bringing  before  the  world  facts  almost  over- 
whelming in  their  nature  and  consequences. 

The  application  of  steam  as  a  superior  moving  power 
upon  a  railway  has  been  fully  tested  by  these  experiments, 
and  the  prize  engine  performed  the  required  seventy 
miles.  Another,  the  '  Novelty,'  of  beautiful  structure  and 
involving  a  new  principle  in  the  consumption  of  fuel, 
though  not  then  successful,  was  much  admired  and  has 
since  caused  various  improvements  in  steam  carriages. 
The  cylinders  of  these  engines  were  equal,  and  the  pres- 
sure upon  the  pistons  the  same,  the  power  therefore  equal. 

Net  Weight  with  Fuel  for 

weight.          fuel,  &c.  35  miles. 

Rocket      5  tons.  5|  tons.  5  cwt.  or  2  cents  per  mile. 

Novelty     2|   «  3$    «  !£  «          i     " 

Actual  performance  on  a  course  one  and  three  fourth 
miles  in  length : 

Tons.        Miles.  Miles. 

Rocket  with  17  went  12£  the  hour,  with  passengers  only,  24  the  h. 
Novelty  with  15  t(  20f  "  «  32  to  35 

«    35  13 


RAIL-UOADS.  553 


The  Rocket  performed  seventy  miles  in  six  hours  and  two 
minutes,  or  over  eleven  and  a  half  miles  per  hour,  includ- 
ing stoppage.  The  distance  from  Liverpool  to  Manches- 
ter, thirtytwo  miles,  has  been  travelled  over  with  passen- 
gers, in  a  little  more  than  two  hours. 

The  following  among  many  data  on  this  subject,  havo 
been  ascertained  from  the  laws  of  Natural  Philosophy  and 
from  extensive  courses  of  experiments. 

1.  That  air  as  a  resisting  medium,  (unless  irregular  in 
the  shape  of  wind,)  makes  no  perceptible  difference  at 
increased  velocities  on  a  rail  nay. 

2.  That  on  a  well  constructed  railway,  the  friction  or 
resistance   is  that  of  the  axle  or  a  rubbing  friction,  and 
the  slight  adhesion  of  rolling  upon  the  rail. 

3.  That  the  friction  on  a  level  is  nearly  as  the  weight, 
and  the  tractive  force  required,  therefore,  nearly  the  same 
at  different  velocities.     From  this  we  see  that  if  weight 
is  reasonably  reduced,  there  is  scarcely  a  limit  to  the  lo- 
comotive power  of  steam,   so  long  as  the   pistons  can 
work  and  the  wheels  can  turn. 

4.  That  a  horse  exerts  his  greatest  available  power  at 
two  to  two  and  a  half  miles  the  hour,   and  beyond  this 
rate  the  horse  requires  the  greater  portion  of  his  muscu- 
lar action  to  propel  hitntclf  forward,  leaving  but  little  for 
the  load.      At  his  customary  rate   seven  eighths  of  his 
force  is  exerted  upon  himself,  leaving  one  eighth  only  for 
the  load.     As  the  velocity   increases,  the  proportion  re- 
maining for  the  load   is  of  course  diminished.     In  Eng- 
land every  coach   on  the  best  roads  that  runs  for  twenty- 
four  hours  at  nine  miles  per  hour,  drawing  not  over  two 
tons,  requires  no  less  than  180  horses  or  ninety  each  way. 
Less  than  twelve  horses  would  carry  the  same  weight  for 
the  same  time  on  the  same  roads  at  two  and  a  half  miles 
per  hour. 

A  horse  can,  at  a  dead  pull,  walk  pff  raising  5  to  600 
pounds  over  a  pulley,  but  the  average  of  his  tractive  pow- 
er when  in  regular  employment,  is  not  above  seventyfive 
pounds. 

The  experiments  of  Leslie  and  others  on  this  subject, 
give  the  following  practical  results  applicable  to  rail-roads. 


554 


RAIL-HOADS. 


•-  41 

Alii  1 1     1  I  "> ,  >?      i 


Ibs.  to.,,. 

Ahorse  at  2  in.  exerts  usually  112  draws  on  a  level  rail  road  about  10 
75  6| 

s'.'Ht   «it>v/f       6°.  5^ 

g          [;>vfi  <*ilJ       1'^  a  no  g, 

8       •.  Qvaa  \itdttgf.i  .JfifU  -itiorf  «*q  25 

The  friction,  therefore,  of  a  ton  upon  a  rail-road  is  about 
eleven  and  a  half  pounds.  It  has  in  recent  practice  been 
reduced  to  nine  pounds. 

On  a  rail-road  the  usual  travel  of  a  horse  at  two  miles 
per  hour,  is  about  twenty  miles  per  day,  and  his  draft, 
therefore,  equal  to  200  tons  for  one  mile,  or  the  tractive 
power  exerted  one  two  hundredth  part  of  the  weight 
moved. 

In  this  country  we  may  estimate  the  ordinary  travel  or 
work  of  a  horse  at  one  third  of  a  ton  weight,  or  at  two 
and  a  half  miles  per  hour,  on  the  best  roads  about  two 
thirds  of  a  ton  weight,  or  one  twelfth  part  of  that  on  a  rail- 
road. The  draft  or  tractive  force  exerted  on  roads  is 
equal  to  about  one  fourteenth  part  of  the  load. 

5.  In  wuiter  the  resistance  is  as  the  square  of  the  velocity. 

6.  On  a  canal  one  horse  at  the  most  draws  thirty  tons 
at  the  rate  of  two  miles  per  hour,  and  only  one  ton  at  six 
miles  per  hour.     This  rapid  decrease  of  horse  power  on 
a  canal  compared  with  a  railway,  will  appear  more  strik- 
ing, thus : 


J\ files. 
One  horse  at    2        per  hour  draws 


Tons.  Jlfilca  per  hour. 

30       require  at 

3 
4 
5 
6 


Tons  on  a              Tons  on  a 

Canal.                 Railtcay. 

3      30 

10 

9 

61 

Sit 

51 

2 

4 

1 

34 

i 

25 

On  Canal. 

Railway. 

1     horse. 

3  horses. 

8        " 

6       " 

15        «*.,,  . 

7J      « 

27J      <•• 

9       « 

86 

11       " 

At  three  and  a  half  miles  per  hour  the  two  are  equal. 


«  RAIL-ROADS.  555 

Steam-boats  presenting  less  resistance,  require  less 
power,  but  the  proportion,  must  from  the  nature  of  the 
water  as  a  resisting  medium,  be  the  same. 

Now,  engines  of  twelve  horse  power,  have  for  several 
years  conveyed  on  a  rail-road  upon  the  average,  forty  tons 
at  six  miles  per  hour,  that  is,  they  have  performed  the 
work  of  forty  horses  on  a  canal,  and  twelve  on  a  rail- 
road, and  from  recent  experiments,  locomotive  engines 
have  actually  accomplished  upwards  of  twenty  miles  in 
the  hour  with  fifteen  tons,  or  what  (if  it  were  possible,) 
would  require  1000  horses  on  a  canal. 

It  appears  desirable  that  the  plan  of  placing  the  horse 
upon  a  carriage  to  propel  himself,  and  a  number  of  load- 
ed cars  by  machinery,  is  worthy  of  more  attention,  than  it 
has  yet  received.  The  power  of  a  locomotive  engine  is 
often  greater  than  required.  In  descending  the  horse 
would  rest,  and  proceed  at  a  velocity  much  greater  than 
his  own.  As  the  horse  weighs  but  one  third  to  one  half 
a  ton,  this  addition  to  the  load  would  be  trifling,  compar- 
ed with  the  seven  eighths  of  his  muscular  power,  which 
is  required  to  propel  himself  when  advancing  on  the 
ground.  The  great  speed  which  is  attainable  by  the  lo- 
comotive engine,  is  also  probably  far  beyond  what  will 
usually  be  required,  when  experience  hereafter  has  made 
its  deductions  for  liability  to  accident,  and  for  these  high- 
ways of  commerce  being  covered  with  traffic. 

It  is  worthy  of  remark,  that  stationary  engines  will 
probably  be  much  superseded.  The  engine  will  be  more 
frequently  locomotive  upon  the  carriage,  working  by  a 
chain  or  otherwise,  and  additional  horses  will  in  other 
cases*be  furnished  for  the  particular  parts  requiring  in- 
creased power.  This  is  frequently  done  at  the  hills  in 
Frc-uch  roads. 

CXI'ENfE    OF    CONSTRUCTIQN,    &.C. 

The  comparative  expense  of  constructing  a  canal  and 
rail-road,  is  about  one  third  in  favor  of  the  latter. 

In  England,  there  are  stated  to  be  about  2600  miles  of 
canal,  in  which  thirtysix  millions  sterling  are  .invested, 
or  800,000  per  m'ile.  Six  years  since,  more  than  1500 


556  RAIL-ROADS. 


miles  of  rail-road  were  in  use,  and  2000  more  have  been 
for  some  time  projected.  Of  this  1500  miles,  only  about 
100  are  for  general  traffic,  the  greater  part  being  in  the 
coal  districts.  The  Liverpool  and  Manchester  rail-road 
cost  from  its  very  expensive  cuttings,  and  the  unusual 
number  of  tracks,  690,000  per  mile.  The  Stockton  and 
Darlington  cost  $45,000  per  mile. 
In  our  own  country  the 

Erie  Canal                       cost  per  mile  $20,000 

Farming^on  Canal                   do.  11,000 

Blackstone  Canal                     do.  13,000 

Hudson  and  Delaware  Canal  do.  18, 
Boston  to  Springfield  estimated  at 


Baltimore  and  Ohio  Rail-road  estimated  !  $20,000  per  mile. 

Mauch  Chunk        :"•>&*   '        cost  single  4,700 

Ithica  ;dOn  •radii'*  i    rmq.;4jDOfr 

Lackawana  ,    btJrVlUsd  hor     ^arj-^i          6,500      '37003 

Boston  to  Providence,  to  Albanv,  to  Brattleboro' 

»  each  estimated  at  15,000 

We  must  bear  in  mind,  that  the  increase  of  distance 
Dy:a  canal  is  often  one  half  beyond  the  length  of  the  or- 
dinary road.  The  rail-road  on  the  contrary  increases  but 
little,  and  sometimes  actually  diminishes  the  route. 

The  Austrian  rail-road  cost  810,000  per  mile.  This 
extends  from  Budweis  on  the  Elbe  eighty  miles  to  Linz 
on  the  Danube,  thus  connecting  the  navigable  waters  of 
these  two  rivers,  and  opening  an  easy  communication 
between  the  Black  Sea  and  Hamburg.  It  was  construct- 
ed in  1827  and  1828. 

'  Near  London,  the  annual  expense  of  repairs  on  the 
great  roads  is  often  85,000  per  mile.  Some  parts  of  our 
Cumberland  road  cost  §17,000  per  mile,  and  part  of  the 
Lancaster  turnpike  in  Pennsylvania  cost  $15,000  per 
mile  ;  neither  of  these  are  macadamized. 

In  Scotland,  on  a  level,  a  single  rail-road  has  been 
constructed,  on  which  one  horse  draws  ten  and  a  half 
tons  at  four  miles  per  hour,  for  §3000  per  mile.  Here 
of  course  were  no  excavations  or  embankments. 

The  actual  expense  of  rail-road  conveyance  on  ths 
most  approved  principles,  must  vary  under  different  cir- 
cnmstances.  Previous  to  the  recent  improvemants  in 


RAIL-ROADS.  557 


England,  the  rail-road  companies  engaged  to  convey 
merchandize  at  one  third  the  price,  and  in  one  third  the 
time  required  on  a  canal.  The  late  experiments  convey- 
ed at  one  farthing  per  ton  for  ten  miles,  or  equal  to  round 
the  globe  for  eight  dollars  per  ton.  The  toll  or  railway 
tax,  is  not  here  included.  In  this  country  this  toll  has 
been  estimated  variously  from  one  to  three  dollars  per 
100  miles  each  ton.  In  England  rather  more.  This  is 
but  little  more  than  coasiinsr  freight. 

Rail-roads  have  also  the  advantage  of  being  extended 
in  single  branches,  at  the  moderate  average  expense  of 
about  §3000  per  mile,  and  thus  villages  and  manufacto- 
ries may  be  benefited,  wher«  a  canal  could  not  have  ex- 
tended its  influence.  The  whole  materials  also  of  such 
a  road  and  its  branches  might,  if  required,  be  taken  up 
and  carried  upon  itself  to  either  end,  and  from  thence 
conveyed  to  any  distance,  and  be  relaid  where  a  change 
of  circumstances  might  demand.  A  canal  must  of  course 
be  permanent. 

It  appears  but  a  reasonable  deduction  from  all  these 
facts,  that  where  rail-roads  can  with  facility  be  construct- 
ed, they  will  by  the  aid  of  steam  carriages  gradually  and 
permanently  give  a  preference  over  canals. 

RAIL-ROADS    IN    TIIE     UNITED    STATES. 

The  first  work  of  this  kind  in  the  United  States  was 
at  Quincy,  in  1826.  By  this  the  granite  is  conveyed 
from  the  extensive  quarries  in  that  town,  to  navigable 
waters  at  Milton,  a  distance  of  two  miles.  This  work  is 
of  the  primitive  kind  and  single.  The  rails  are  of  pine, 
laid  on  cross  sleepers  with  a  scantling  of  oak  on  the  top. 
On  this  scantling  a  thin  rolled  iron  plate  is  placed,  tw«> 
and  a  half  by  half  an  inch,  and  secured  by  small  bolts. 
From  its  being  without  a  precedent  in  our  country,  the 
expense  was  great,  and  being  too  slight  for  the  great 
weights  conveyed  over  it,  is  not  likely  to  be  permanent ; 
a  part  has  already  been  relaid  with  granite  rails. 

In  March,  1827,  the  railway  of  Mauch  Chunck  in 
Pennsylvania,  was  opened  from  the  coal  mines  at  that 
place  to  the  Lehigh  canal.  This  railway  extends  upon 

VOL.    I    NO.  XXIII.  50 


RAIL-ROADS. 


an  irregular  inclination  for  nine  miles,  and  was  formed 
and  laid  down  in  the  short  space  of  sixty  days.  The 
loaded  carriages  descend  the  whole  distance  by  gravita- 
tion, and  when  emptied  are  drawn  up  by  animal  power. 
The  rate  of  descent  is  in  some  parts  over  twentyfive 
miles  per  hour. 

The  Honesdale  rail-road  from  Lackawana  to  the  Hud- 
son and  Delaware  canal,  continues  seventeen  miles,  and 
thus  connects  the  upper  part  of  the  same  coal  district, 
with  the  Hudson  river  and  New- York.  This  was  con- 
structed in  1829,  being  also  an  edge  rail  of  the  primi- 
tive kind,  and  is  temporary.  It  has  five  ascending  planes, 
worked  by  stationary  engines,  and  averaging  half  a  mile 
each  i;i  length,  surmounting  in  all  a  perpendicular  height 
of  800  feet  in  three  and  a  half  miles.  Towards  the  ca- 
nal are  three  descending  planes  of  nearly  the  same 
length. 

In  Pennsylvania,  the  route  from  Philadelphia  to  Pitts- 
burg,  being  407  miles,  partly  by  canals  and  partly  by 
rail-roads,  is  in  a  state  of  great  forwardness.  First  a 
rail-road  to  Columbia,  eightyfive  miles,  thence  a  canal  to 
the  Allegliany  mountains,  thence  a  rail-road  of  forty 
miles  across  the  mountains,  thence  a  canal  to  Pittsburg. 
This  forms  but  a  part  of  the  internal  improvements  of 
this  energetic  and  important  state,  which  several  years 
liace  had  in  hand  1230  in  lies  of  canals  and  rail-roads, 
at  an  expense  of  fifteen  millions  of  dollars.  The  conse- 
quence is,  that  already  the  lands  within  reach  of  these 
works  have  increased  in  value,  probably  more  than  that 
amount.  Goods  were  the  first  season  thrust  to  Lacka- 
wana, some  120  miles  into  the  forest,  and  then  sold  at 
little  more  than  the  retail  prices  of  New-York  and  Phila- 
delphia. The  impulse  thus  given  to  agriculture  and  the 
settlement  of  the  State  may  be  conceived. 

In  Maryland,  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  railway  is  a  stu- 
pendous undertaking.  It  will  be  350  miles  in  length  ; 
the  first  ISO  miles  (between  Baltimore  and  the  Allegha- 
ny  mountains,)  will  be  passed  with  only  one  stationary 
engine.  The  magnificent  and  permanent  style  in  which 
the  work  has  been  commenced,  will  render  it  expensive, 
but  its  advantages  will  doubtless  be  commensurate.  A 


RAIL-IIOADS.  559 


part  of  this  railway  towards  Baltimore  is  already  opened 
for  traffic. 

Fioin  Augusta  in  Georgia,  to  Charleston,  South  Caro- 
lina, a  railway  is  now  in  progress  ICO  miles  in  length. 

A  rail-road  has  even  been  projected  to  extend  trorn 
New- York  towards  Missouri.  A  part  of  the  distance 
has  heen  already  traversed,  and  the  whole  has  been  pro- 
nounced by  the  son  of  De  Wilt  Clinton  to  he  practicable, 
at  an  expense  double  that  of  the  Erie  eannl,  and  but  lit- 
tle more  than  that  of  tlie  present  London  bridge.  It  is 
worthy  of  notice,  that  when  the  Erie  canal  was  projected 
in  1809,  Mr  Jefferson  said  it  might  be  finished  in  a  cen- 
tury, and  lived  to  acknowledge  in  1S'26,  that  the  age  was 
nearly  a  century  belbre  him. 

In  New  Jersey,  a  railway  is  now  constructing  across 
the  State  from  Ana  boy  bay,  not  far  from  New- York,  to 
Camden,  opposite  Philadelphia  ;  the  distance  is  about  six- 
ty miles. 

In  Massachusetts,  projected  routes  have  heen  accu- 
rately surveyed,  from  Boston  to  Providence,  fortytwo 
miles,  to  Brattleboro',  114  miles,  to  Albany,  200  miles, 
also  to  Lowell  and  Worcester.  The  two  last  only,  have 
as  yet  been  undertaken.  In  these  several  routes,  (ex- 
cepting to  Brattleboro1,)  no  stationary  power  is  required, 
the  ascent  in  no  case  exceeding  eighty  feet  in  a  mile,  or 
one  foot  in  sixtyfive,  this  is  an  angle  of  less  than  one  de- 
gree. Ascents  in  roads  even  where  great  traffic  prevails, 
are  sometimes  ten  degrees.  The  route  to  Albany  rises 
to  an  elevation  of  1440  above  the  Connecticut  river. 

A  railway  has  also  been  projected  from  Brattleboro'  on 
to  Whitehall  on  Lake  Champlain.  A  more  eligible  route, 
however,  and  one  more  likely  to  succeed,  is  that  from 
Boston  to  Ogdensburg  on  the  outlet  of  Lake  Ontario. 
This  would  pass  through  Lowell,  Concord,  N.  II.,  Mont- 
pelier,  down  the  valley  of  Onion  river  and  near  Burling- 
ton ;  thence  from  Plattsburg  on  the  opposite  side  of  the 
lake  to  Ogdensburg.  The  whole  extent  is  350  miles, 
and  though  not  accurately  surveyed,  has  been  ascertain- 
ed to  be  practicable,  requiring  but  three  stationary  en- 
gines, (as  in  seventeen  miles  at  Lackawana,)  and  in  no 
other  instance  having  a  greater  ascent  than  fifty  or  sixty 


560 


RAIL-ROADS. 


feet  in  the  mile.  It  would  cross  the  Green  mountains  at 
the  gulf,  so  called,  the  greatest  elevation  being  about 
1000  feet  above  the  Connecticut.  The  importance  of 
this,  may  be  estimated  from  Ogdensburg,  commanding  a 
continued  navigation  for  vessels  of  1~0  ton*,  for  1200 
miles  along  the  lakes. 

Besides  the  foregoing  sketch,  many  hundreds  of  miles 
of  rail-roads  have  been  projected  in  different  States,  and 
some  of  the  routes  actually  commenced,  but  an  accurate 
notice  of  all  cannot  be  expected  here.* 

*  Just  as  these  sheets  were  going  to  press,  we  met  with  the  fol- 
lowing vivid  description  of  a  scene  upon  the  famous  Liverpool  and 
Manchester  rail-road,  which  will  give  our  readers  a  very  clear  con- 
ception of  the  pleasures,  and  the  present  dangers  of  this  mode  of 
travelling.  It  is  contained  in  a  letter  from  a  correspondent  of  the 
New  York  Ohserver,  and  was  published  in  that  paper.  \\  e  ought 
to  remark,  that  the  danger  of  such  accidents,  as  the  one  here  de- 
scribed, will  he  very  much  diminished  as  the  art  of  constructing 
roads,  and  the  engines  which  move  upon  them,  advance  towards  per- 
fection. —  ED.  So  i.  TRACTS 

(••>  'ti\;  '-a  -uMaiif.  vJr-i/:/-.»  i,--  anirfofiw  suli  !-n«  .'jjjH-^r.  >  9?ob 
'  I  left  Liverpool  this  morning,  at  seven  o'clock,  with  a  friend  and 
U'llort-  passenger  of  the  ship,  a  very  charming  young  man  of  Paw- 
lucket,  Ma=s.,  for  London,  via  Manchester  and  Birmingham  —  the 
distance  to  London  heing  208  miles  —  by  the  railway  to  Manchester, 
of  course.  For  who  could  pass  by  that  I  —  I  had  walked  up  to  the 
Liverpool  end  of  the  railway  before,  and  saw  that  part  of  tli,is  stu- 
pendous and  proud  work,  i  had  seen  the  trains  of  cars,  both  of  pas- 
sengers and  tho^e  for  transportation,  come  in  and  go  out,  led  by  the 
little,  proud,  quick,  and  spiteful  engine  —  a  truly  sublime  sight.  No 
one,  who  has  not  witnessed  the  reality,  can  have  an  adequate  idea 
of  the  scene.  I  have  several  times  stood  upon  a  bridge,  thrown  over 
the  railway,  about  one  mile  from  the  place  of  slopping,  and  seen  a 
train  approach  in  the  distance,  rapidly  Hearing,  and  dart  under  me 
with  such  velocity,  that  when  the  engine  had  met  the  perpendicu- 
lar line  under  my  feet,  with  a  train  of  cars  behind  of  twenty  rods  in 
length,  I  have  sprung  with  all  possible  agility  to  the  opposite  side  of 
a  bridge  of  twenty  feet  in  breadth,  and  before  I  could  reach  it,  the 
whole  train  had  passed  from  under  me,  and  seemed  flying  away  to 
its  goal  —  leaving  the  impression,  that  no  power  could  possibly  ar- 
rest its  momentum,  and  that  it  must  inevitably  plunge  into  the  town, 
he  dashed  against  its  walls,  tearing  everything  away,  which  could 
be  torn  ;  —  and  yet  the  next  moment,  it  is  seen  easing  and  easing 
away,  and  then  at  rest.  I  now  speak  of  some  views  1  have  bad  to- 
day in  the  vicinity  of  Manchester,  which  were  better  than  those  I 
had  at  the  other  end. 

'  The  Liverpool  end  is  in  front  of  a  hill  of  freestone  rock,  whera 


RAIL-ROADS.  561 


BENEFITS    OF    RAILWAYS    TO    OUR    UNION. 

The  influence  of  such  works  upon  the  Atlantic,  as 
well  as  upon  the  Western  Slates  of  the  Union,  forces  it- 
self upon  our  consideration.  The  object  of  Virginia, 
Maryland,  Pennsylvania,  New-York  and  Massachusetts, 

the  cars  aro  laden  with  passengers,  and  then  drawn  by  a  stationary 
engine  through  a  chirk  tunnel  of  300  to  400  feet,  into  a  deep  and 
rectangular  ba-in,  itself  open  to  the  heavens  but  sunk  about  titty 
feet  in  the  same  solid  rock,  topped  and  inclosed  with  artificial  bat- 
tlements of  heavy  masonry. 

'  Tlii-  immcn  <e  artificial  chasm  is  a  beautiful,  as  well  as  a  stupend- 
ous work.  The  deep  cut  in  the  rock  continues,  with  gradual  de- 
creaso,  a  large  moiety  of  a  mile.  The  basin  above  describe  I  is  the 
etartinjj  arid  arriving  point  —  or  the  goal.  Here  the  locomotive  en- 
gine i<  a'iached.  am!  away  it  goes  at  the  precise  moment,  and  soon 
the  p:i.s.-n;.i>r  feels  himself  on 'wing*.  If  he  looks  at  the  nearest  ob- 
jects, he  i-"  dizzy  in  an  instant.  He  cannot  endure  it.  And  for  re- 
lief, he  throws  out  his  eye  upon  the  fields,  and  trees,  and  country 
around.  The  motion  of  "the  car,  in  its  rapid  flight,  is  so  much  like 
that  of  a  coach  running  swiftly  over  smooth  ground,  itself  being  a 
dose  carriage,  and  the  twitching  so  exactly  similar  to  that  of  hoi-sea 
on  a  full  jump,  that  in  spile  of  the  evidences  to  the  contrary  around 
me  today,  as  1  was  whirled  along,  I  several  times  imagined  fully 
for  a  moment,  that  our  horses  were  running  to  destruction  with  loose 
rein  —  and  startled  at  the  thought. 

*Th?re  are  two  separate  trains  for  passengers,  one  of  the  first 
da??,  (ho  other  of  the  second  —  each  making  three  trips  a  day  to  and 
fro.  The  first  is  a  close  carriage  —  or  a  train  of  coaches,  each  ac- 
commodating eighteen  passengers  in  three  separate  apartments  — 
running  through  a  distance  of  thirtytwo  miles,  in  one  hour  and  thir- 
ty miu'iA-s.  "The  second  class  is  composed  of  open  cars  —  runs 
through  in  two  hours — fare  three  shillings  and  sixpence  sterling. 
Fare  for  the  first  class  five  shillings.  The-e  trains  often  carry  from 
200  to  300  passengers.  The  average  number  of  passengers  per  day, 
between  Liverpool  and  Manchester,  for  the  last  two  weeks,  ha* 
been  2.200. 

'  I  started  this  morning  in  the  first  class,  with  six  coaches  in  train, 
and  about  one  hundred  passengers.  The  first  halfway  we  passed 
in  fine  style,  and  high  spirits,  and  having  replenished  the  water 
for  the  engine,  were  soon  under  full  speed  again.  I  had  frequently 
put  my  head  out  of  the  coach  to  look  backward  and  forward,  and 
abroad — to  make  such  observations,  as  curiosity,  and  the  novel  in- 
terest  of  the  scene,  prompted.  Sometimes  a  train,  coming  from  the 
opposite  direction,  might  be  seen  ahead,  and  soon  it  would  brush  by 
us,  at  a  distance  of  three  feet,  with  such  velocity,  that,  pent  up  as 
we  were,  we  could  no  more  count  the  number  of  coaches,  than  the 
^>okes  in  a  woman's  spinning  wheel,  when  buzzing  in  its  swiftest 


562  RAIL-ROADS. 


is  by  these  iifimense  exertions,  to  bring  the  trade  of  the 
western  regions  over  land,  to  the  middle  Atlantic  shores, 
thus  avoiding  the  circuitous  and  dangerous  navigation  at- 
tending the  export  of  produce,  even  after  it  has  reached 
New-Orleans,  on  the  one  hand,  or  the  Saint  Lawrence, 
on  the  other.  Taking  the  line  of  Ohio  and  Indiana,  as 

turn.  I  speak  as  a  matter  of  fact:  not  that  we  could  not  see  them, 
but  their  speed  added  to  our*,  each  going  in  opposite  directions, 
rendered  it  absolutely  impossible  to  count  the  coaches,  as  Uiey  pass- 
ed our  window.  The  rear  presented  itself  almost  the  same  instant 
with  the  front.  All  we  could  perceive  was  :  —  It  is  here,  it  is  gone ! 
Sometimes  we  ran  fifteen  miles  the  hour  —  sometimes  twenty  — 
and  sometimes  twenlyfive.  I  should  judge  we  were  running  at  the 
rate  of  twentyfive  miles  —  or  more  rather  than  less — when  I  look- 
ed out  of  the  window  forward,  an;l  instantly  exclaimed,  as  my 
friend  says,  thrice,  (though  I  do  not  myself  recollect  it,)  "  We  are 
gone!  we  are  gone!  we  are  gone!"  And  surely  I  had  good  rea- 
son to  make  the  inference.  For  at  that  instant  1  saw  the  engine  de- 
•erting  its  proper  track,  and  staggering  and  plunsjins  headlong 
down  the  bank  —  reluctantly  indeed,  as  if  conscious  of  its  charge 
and  responsibility!  And  what  could  the  train  do  but  follow?  —  I 
had  no  sooner  uttered  these  words,  than — crash!  crash!  crash! 
went  the  whole  train.  And  instantly  the  engine  lay  bottom  up- 
•wards,  directly  abreast  of  our  car,  the  fourth  in  our  train,  dis- 
charging its  steam  directly  into  our  faces.  By  thu  time  all  was  at 
rest,  a  heap  of  ruin  The  tremendous  crash,  by  which  we  were 
brought  up,  may  in  part  be  estimated,  when  it  is  considered,  that  al- 
though we  were  running  at  such  a  rate,  we  did  not  make  a  head- 
way of  more  than  two  roVis,  afier  the  engine  plunged  from  the  rail- 
road. But  you  will  be  in  pain  to  see  us  out  of  the  steam.  *:  Open 
theoppo-ite  djor !"  said  I- "  open  the  opposite  door !"  My  friend,  be- 
ing nearest,  made  the  attempt,  but.  not  succeeding,  jumped  through 
the  window.  There  were  two  ladies,  a  gentleman,  and  a  boy,  still 
remaining  with  me  in  the  same  apartment  of  the  car.  And  how  we 
all  got  out,  I  could  not  afterwaids  recollect.  The  escaping  steam 
proved  to  come  from  the  safety  valve,  and  of  course,  gave  us  nothing 
more  than  a  very — very  hot  bath.  The  forward  car,  next  the  en- 
gine, was  drawn  after  itj  ;md  thrown  over,  with  all  its  passengers. 
The  next  plunged  into  it,  and  stove  its  back  in  pieces.  And  each 
car  run  against  its  predecessor  in  the  same  manner,  making  more  or 
less  splinters,  until  all  were  brought  up  at  rest,  and  be^an  to  disem- 
bogue their  occupants,  each  actuated  by  the  impulse  of  self-preser- 
vation. Soon,  however,  they  began  to  help  one  another,  and  to 
look  after  the  killed  and  wounded.  After  seeing  my  own  apartment 
cleared  of  its  tenants,  I  ran  around  in  front  of  the  circle —  (for  the 
wreck  now  made  a  circle,)  and  the  first  thing  which  attracted  my 
attention,  was  the  dragging  out  of  the  engineer,  who  lay  buried  un- 
der the  engine  —  the  machine  having  turned  bottom  upwards.  The 


RAIL-ROADS.  5G3 


something  like  a  present  centre  to  the  Western  States, 
Montreal  and  New-Orleans  are  about  equally  distant,  and 
Baltimore, ''Philadelphia  and  New- York,  are  little  more 
than  half  the  distance  of  either.  When,  therefore,  we 
have  Ohio  itself  with  a  million  of  inhabitants  within  this 
limit,  Apd  consider  the  increased  distance  on  the  other 
hand,  j^ith  a  dangerous  navigation  beyond  it,  and  the 
expense  and  un healthiness  of  the  great  mart,  New  Or- 
leans, we  can  admit,  that  these  grand  efforts  of  the  At- 
lantic States,  are  not  entirely  visionary.  To  effect  these 
purposes,  no  means  have  been  presented,  having  the  same 
facilities  as  rail-roads,  and  we  may,  therefore,  suppose, 
that  eventually,  a  large  proportion  of  the  natural  and  ag- 
ricultural productions  above  Kentucky,  may  pass  over  to 
the  Atlantic  shores,  and  that  the  states  thus  interested, 
and  the  intermediate  regions  will  be  benefited  in  a  pro- 
portion, at  least,  equal  to  the  expense  of  these  under- 
takings. 

The  operation  of  this  inland  commerce,  as  a  common 
bond  of  union  to  the  States  concerned,  cannot  be  too 
highly  appreciated,  or  too  much  encouraged. 

REFLECTIONS. 

From  an  invention  then,  the  principle  of  which  is  as 
simple  as  that  of  the  chair  we  sit  upon,  the  obstacles  of 
time  and  space  are  overcome  in  a  tenfold  degree  beyond 

moment  lie  was  drawn  out,  he  stood  upon  his  feet,  but  his  face  and 
head  frightfully  disfigured  with  blood  and  dust.  Some  one  imme- 
diately grasped  his  hand,  and  shook  it  very  cordially,  congratulating 
him  for  his  life  preserved,  lie  was  carried  away,  and  I  have  not 
heard  from  him  since,  and  therefore  cannot  tell  how  much  he  was  in- 
jured. Through  the  exceeding  mercy  of  God,  no  other  person  was 
hurt,  worthy  of  notice,  so  far  as  I  have  learned.  Two  or  three 
trains  soon  arrived  from  opposite  directions,  and  were  obliged  to 
slop,  as  our  wreck  covered  the  whole  way.  Men,  women,  and 
children  of  the  p^.-antry  came  pouring  in  from  the  adjoining  farms, 
as  they  witnessed  our  misfortune.  And  by  the  help  of  all,  we  soon 
threw  off  from  the  ways  our  disabled  cars" — found  three  of  them  in 
a  condition  to  be  use, fin  our  necessities,  although  not  sound  —  bor- 
rowed an  engine,  which  happened  along,  and  having  packed  in 
again,  thick  enough  indeed,  proceeded  to  Manchester,  and  arrived 
only  two  hours  after  the  regular  time.' 


664  RAIL-ROADS. 


anything  hitherto  known.  Places  one  hundred  miles  dis- 
tant may,  for  every  purpose  of  commerce,  convenience 
and  defence,  be  brought  within  ten,  and  thoseTOOO  miles 
distant  within  one  hundred. 

An  inland  coasting  trade  we  might,  almost  sav.  has 
arisen,  which  will  carry  home  to  our  inhabitaA  their 
commerce,  both  in  war  and  in  peace,  in  winte^and  in 
summer,  unparalyzed  by  adverse  winds,  by  insurances  or 
blockade;  a  means  of  transporting,  in  case  of  invasion, 
both  troops  and  the  munitions  of  war,  from  one*  portion 
to  another  of  our  country,  with  unexampled  rapidity. 

It  is  not  the  object  of  "this  treatise  to  defend  the  claims 
of  railways.  There  is  much  conjecture  about  a  matter 
so  new,  but  that  a  portion  of  the  anticipated  results,  will 
be  an  affair  of  jjwre  history  in  some  parts  of  our  country, 
is  about  as  certain  as  the  rising  of  tomorrow's  s-un.  Some 
twenty  years  since,  Mr  Steven?,  one  of  the  earliest  and 
largest  steam-boat  proprietors  in  New- York  asserted, 
that  there  were  those  then  living,  who  would,  between 
sun  and  sun,  see  New- York  and  Albany,  (150  miles.) 
He  was  ridiculed  at  as  visionary,  but  it  has  been  done  in 
ten  hours. 

The  words  of  an  accurate  and  practical  engineer,  who 
had  long  devoted  his  professional  attention  to  rail-road*, 
are  worthy  of  note.  In  recommending  locomotive  en- 
gines, he  says;  '  It  is  far  from  my  wish,  to  promulgate  to 
the  world,  that  the  ridiculous  expectations,  or  rather  pro- 
fessions of  the  enthusiastic  speculatist,  will  be  realized, 
and  that  we  shall  see  them  travelling  at  the  rate  of  twelve, 
sixteen,  eighteen  or  twenty  miles  an  hour;  nothing  could 
do  more  harm  towards  their  adoption  or  general  im- 
provement, than  the  promulgation  of  such  nonsense/ 
In  a  future  edition  of  his  work,  we  shall  probably  see 
this  passage  amended,  as  the  author,  five  years  aflerward?, 
was  one  of  the  judges  at  the  late  Manchester  race,  when 
the  rate  of  thirtyfive  miles,  (and  even  fortyone  for  a  short 
distance,)  was  accomplished. 


SCIENTIFIC     TRACTS. 

*  NUMBER    XXIV. 


WHALE    FISHERY. 

[Continued.] 

IN  a  former  number,  we  described  the  ordinary  pro- 
cess of  attacking  and  capturing  a  whale.  In  continua- 
tion of  the  general  subject,  we  proceed  to  devote  the  few 
pages  of  the  present  volume  which  remai*,  to  a  descrip- 
tion of  some  particular  incidents,  which  Scoresby  nar- 
rates, and  which  farther  illustrate  the  business,  —  and  to 
an  account  of  the  manner,  by  which  the  oil  is  extracted. 

INTERESTING    INCIDENTS. 

'On  the  twenty  fifth  of  June,  1812,  one  of  the  harpoon- 
ers  belonging  to  the  Resolution,  under  my  command, 
struck  a  whale  by  the  edge  of  a  small  floe  of  ice.  As- 
sistance being  promptly  afforded,  a  second  boat's  lines 
were  attached  to  those  of  the  fast-boat,*  in  a  few  minutes 
after  the  harpoon  was  discharged.  The  remainder  of 
the  boats  proceeded  to  some  distance,  in  the  direction 
the  fish  seemed  to  have  taken.  In  about  a  quarter  of  an 
hour,  the  fast-boat,  to  my  surprise,  again  made  a  signal 
for  lines.  As  the  ship  was  then  within  five  minutes'  sail, 
we  instantly  steered  towards  the  boat,  with  the  view  of 
affording  assistance,  by  means  of  a  spare  boat,  we  still 
retained  on  board.  Before  we  reached  the  place,  how- 
cv:  -,  we  observed  four  oars  displayed  in  signal  order, 

*  For  a  definition  of  these  and  other  technical  terms,  see  Tract, 
No.  17. 

VOL.    I. NO.    XXIV.  51* 


566  WHALE    FISHERY. 


which,  by  their  number,  indicated  a  most  urgenjttieces- 
sity  for  assistance.  Two  or  three  men  were,  at  the  same 
time,  seated  close  by  the  stern,  which  was  coWliderably 
elevated,  for  the  purpose  of  keeping  it  down,  —  while 
the  bow  of  the  boat,  by  the  force  of  the  line,  was  drawn 
^Kown  to  the  level  of  the  sea, — and  the  harpoojer,  by 
ihe  friction  of  the  line  round  the  bollard,  was  erBloped 
M  in  smoky  obscurity.  At  length,  when  the  ship  wasfcarce- 
^ly  100  yards  distant,  we  perceived  preparations  for  quitr  ^ 
ting  the  boat.  The  sailors'  pea-jackets  were  cast  upolP* 
the  adjoining  ice,  —  the  oars  were  thrown  down,  —  the 
crew  leaped  overboard,  —  the  bow  of  the  boat  was  bu- 
ried in  the  water,  —  the  stern  rose  perpendicular,  and 
then  majestically  disappeared.  The  harpooner,  having 
caused  the  end  of  the  line  to  be  fastened  to  the  iron  ring 
at  the  boat's  stern,  was  the  means  of  its  loss  ;  and  a 
tongue  of  the  ice,  on  which  was  a  depth  of  several  feet 
of  tvater,  kept  the  boat,  by  the  pressure  of  the  line 
against  it,  at  such  a  considerable  distance,  as  prevented 
the  crew  from  leaping  upon  the  floe.  Some  of  them 
were,  therefore,  put  to  the  necessity  of  swimming  for 
.^iheir  preservation,  but  all  of  them  succeeded  in  scramb- 
ling upon  the  ice,  and  were  taken  aboard  of  the  ship  a 
few  minutes  afterwards.  I  may  here  observe,  that  it  is 
an  uncommon  circumstance  for  a  fish  to  take  more  than 
two  boats'  lines  in  such  a  situation  ;  —  none  of  our  har- 
pooners,  therefore,  had  any  scruple  in  leaving  the  fast- 
boat,  never  suspecting,  after  it  had  received  the  assist- 
ance of  one  boat,  with  six  lines  or  upwards,  that  it 
would  need  any  more. 

'  Several  ships  being  about  us,  there  was  a  possibility 
that  some  persons  might  attack  and  make  a  prize  of  the 
wh&e,  when  it  had  so  far  escaped  us,  that  we  no  longer 
retained  any  hold  of  it.  We,  therefore,  set  all  the  sail 
the  ship  could  safely  sustain,  and  worked  through  seve- 
ral narrow  and  intricate  channels  in  the  ice,  in  the  direc- 
tion I  observed  the  fish  had  retreated.  After  a  little 
time,  it  was  descried  by  the  people  in  the  boats,  at  a 
considerable  distance  to  the  eastward  ;  a  genera!  chase 
immediately  commenced,  and  in  the  space  of  an  hour 
three  harpoons  were  struck.  We  now  imagined  the  fish 


WHALE    FISHERY.  507 


was  secure,  but  our  expectations  were  premature.  Th« 
whale  resolutely  pushed  beneath  a  large  floe,  that  had 
recently  been  broke  to  pieces  by  the  swell,  and  soon  drew 
all  the  lines  out  of  the  second  last-boat,  the  officer  of 
which,  not  being  able  to  get  any  assistance,  tied  the  end 
of  his  line  to  a  hummock  of  ice,  and  broke  it. 

'  SooB  afterwards,  the  other  two  boats,  still  fast,  were 
dragged  against  the  broken  floe,  mien  one  of  the  har- 
poons drew  out.  The  line  of  only  one  boat,  therefore, 
remained  fast  to  the  fish,  and  with  six  or  eight  lines  out, 
was  dragged  forward  into  the  shattered  floe  with  aston- 
ishing force.  Pieces  of  ice,  each  of  which  was  suffi- 
ciently large,  to  have  answered  the  purpose  of  mooring 
a  ship,  were  wheeled  about  by  the  strength  of  the  whale; 
and  such  was  the  tension  and  elasticity  of  the  line,  that 
whenever  it  slipped  clear  of  any  mass  of  ice,  after  turn- 
ing it  round,  into  the  space  between  any  two  adjoining 
pieces,  the  boat  and  its  crew  flew  forward  through  the 
creek,  with  the  velocity  of  an  arrow,  and  never  failed  to 
launch  several  feel  upon  the  first  mass  of  ice  it  encoun- 
tered. 

'  While  we  scoured  tho  sea,  around  the  broken  floe 
with  the  ship,  and  while  the  ice  was  attempted  in  vain 
by  the  boats,  the  whale  continued  to  press  forward  in  an 
easterly  direction  toward  the  sea.  At  length,  when  four- 
teen lines,  (about  10^0  fathoms.)  were  drawn  from  the 
fourth  fast-boat,  a  slight  entanglement  of  the  line,  broke 
it  at  the  stem.  The  fish  again  made  its  escape,  taking 
along  with  it  a  boat  and  twentyeight  lines.  The  united 
length  of  the  lines  was  6720  yards,  or  upwards  of  three 
and  three  fourths  English  miles;  value,  with  the  boat, 
above  JoO  pounds  sterling. 

'  The  obstruction  of  the  sunken  boat  to  the  progress 
of  the  fish  must  have  been  immense,  and  that  of  the  lines, 
likewise  considerable,  the  weight  of  the  lines  alone  being 
thirtyfive  hundred  weight. 

'  So  long  as  the  fourth  fast-boat,  through  the  medium 
of  its  lines,  retained  its  hold  of  the  fish,  we  searched  the 
adjoining  sea  with  the  ship  in  vain ;  but,  in  a  short  time 
after  the  line  \^s  divided,  we  got  sight  of  the  object  of 

1  pursuit,  at  the  distsnce  of  near  two  miles  to  the  eastward 

1  of  the  ice  and  boats,  in  the  open  sea. 


568  WHALE    FISHERY. 


'  One  boat  only  with  lines,  and  two  empty  boats  were 
reserved  by  the  ship.  Having,  however,  fortunately  fine 
weather,  and  a  fresh  breeze  of  wind,  we  immediately 
gave  chase  under  all  sail ;  though,  it  must  be  confessed, 
with  the  insignificant  force  by  us,  the  distance  of  the  fish, 
and  the  rapidity  of  its  flight  considered,  we  had  but  very 
small  hopes  of  success.  At  length,  after  pursuing  it  five 
or  six  miles,  being  at  least  nine  miles  from  the  place 
where  it  was  struck,  we  carne  up  with  it,  and  it  seemed 
inclined  to  rest  after  its  extraordinary  exertions.  The 
two  dismantled,  or  empty  boats  having  been  furnished 
with  two  lines  each,  (a  very  inadequate  supply,)  they,  to- 
gether with  the  one  in  a  good  state  of  equipment,  now 
made  an  attack  upon  the  whale.  One  of  the  harpoonera 
made  a  blunder,  the  fish  saw  the  boat,  took  the  alarm, 
and  again  fled.  I  now  supposed  it  would  be  seen  no 
more ;  nevertheless,  we  chased  nearly  a  mile  in  the  di- 
rection I  imagined  it  had  taken,  and  placed  the  boats,  to 
the  best  of  my  judgment,  in  the  most  advantageous  situa- 
tions. In  this  case  we  were  extremely  fortunate.  The 
fish  rose  near  one  of  the  boats,  and  was  immediately  har- 
pooned. In  a  few  minutes,  two  more  harpoons  entered 
its  back,  and  lances  were  plied  against  it  with  vigor  and 
success.  Exhausted  by  its  amazing  exertions  to  escape, 
it  yielded  itself  at  length  to  its  fate,  received  the  piercing 
wounds  of  the  lances  without  resistance,  and  finally  died 
without  a  struggle.  Thus  terminated  with  success,  an 
attack  upon  a  whale,  which  exhibited  the  most  uncom- 
mon determination  to  escape  from  its  pursuers,  seconded 
by  the  most  amazing  strength  of  any  individual,  whose 
capture  I  ever  witnessed.  After  all,  it  may  seem  sur- 
prising that  it  was  not  a  particularly  large  individual  ; 
the  longest  lamina  of  whalebone  only  measuring  nine 
feet  six  inches,  while  those  affording  twelve  feet  bone 
are  not  uncommon.  The  quantity  of  line  withdrawn 
from  the  different  boats  engaged  in  the  capture,  was  sin- 
gularly great.  It  amounted,  altogether,  to  10,440  yards, 
or  nearly  six  English  miles;  of  these,  thirteen  new  lines 
lost,  together  with  the  sunken  boat ;  the  harpoon  con- 
necting them  to  the  fish,  having  dropped  out  before  the 
whale  was  killed. 

'After  having  taken  a  large  circuit  with  the  ship  Esk, 


™» 


569 


in  the  open  sea  in  search  of  whales,  we  saw  two  or  three 
individuals,  when  at  the  distance  of  about  twenty  miles 
from  the  middle  hook  of  the  Foreland.  The  weather 
was  fine,  and  no  ice  in  sight.  A  boat  was  despatched 
towards  one  of  the  fish  we  saw,  which  was  immediately 
struck.  The  men  were  already  considerably  fatigued, 
having  been  employed  immediately  before  in  a  laborious 
work,  but  they  of  course,  proceeded  in  the  boats  to  the 
chase  of  the  fast  fish.  It  had  made  its  appearance  be- 
fore they  all  had  left  the  ship.  Three  boats  then  ap- 
proached it,  unluckily  at  the  same  moment.  Each  of 
them  so  incommoded  the  other,  that  no  second  harpoon 
could  be  struck.  The  fish  then  took  the  alarm,  and  ran 
off  towards  the  east,  at  the  rate  of  about  four  miles  per 
hour  ;  some  of  the  boats  nave  chase,  and  others  took  hold 
of  the  fast-boat,  and  were  towed  by  it  to  windward. 
When  two  boats,  by  greater  exertions  on  the  part  of  their 
crews,  had  got  very  near  the  fish,  and  the  harpooners 
were  expecting  every  moment  to  be  able  to  strike  it,  it 
suddenly  shifted  its  course  under  water,  and  in  a  few 
minutes  discovered  itself  in  a  southerly  direction,  at 
least  half  a  mile  from  any  boat.  It  then  completed  a  cir- 
cuit round  the  fast-boat,  with  the  sweep  of  nearly  a  mile 
as  a  radius,  and  though  followed  in  its  track  by  the  boats, 
it  dived  before  any  of  them  got  near  it,  and  evaded  them 
completely.  When  it  appeared  again,  it  was  at  least 
half  a  mile  to  windward  of  any  of  them,  and  then  con- 
tinued arduously  advancing  in  the  same  direction.  At 
various  times  during  the  pursuit,  the  boats  having  the 
most  indefatigable  crews,  reached  the  fish  within  ten  or 
fifteen  yards,  when  apparently  aware  of  their  design,  it 
immediately  sunk  and  changed  its  course ;  so  that  it  in- 
variably made  its  next  appearance  in  a  quarter  v.  here,  no 
boats  were  near. 

'  The  most  general  course  of  the  whale  being  towards 
the  wind,  it  soon  withdrew  all  the  boats  many  miles  from 
the  ship,  notwithstanding  our  utmost  efforts,  under  a  press 
of  sail,  to  keep  near  thorn. 

'After  six  or  seven  hours'  pursuit,  without  success, 
the  sky  became  overcast,  and  we  were  suddenly  envel- 
oped for  some  time  in  the  obscurity  of  a  thick  fog.  In 

VOL.I.  —  NO.  xxiv.  52    ,* 


570  WHALE    FISHERY. 

this  interval  the  boats  were  all  moored  to  the  fast-boat, 
the  men  being  fearful  of  being  dispersed  ;  but  on  the 
disappearing  of  the  fog,  ihe  pursuit  was  recommenced 
with  renewed  vigor.  Still  the  harpooners  were  not  able 
to  succeed.  They  were  now  convinced  of  the  neces- 
sity of  using  every  measure  to  retard  the  flight  of  the 
fish.  For  this  purpose,  they  slacked  out  nine  lines,  a 
weight  in  air  of  eleven  hundred  weight,  while  the  crew 
of  the  fast-boat  endeavored  farther  to  retard  his  progress, 
by  holding  their  oars  firmly  in  the  water,  as  if  in  the  act 
of  backing  the  boat  astern.  But  this  plan  did  not  suc- 
ceed. They  then  lashed  two  or  three  boats  with  their 
sides  to  the  stern  of  the  fast-boat,  and  these  were  dragged 
broad  side  first,  with  little  diminished  velocity  for  some 
time.  But  the  fish  at  length,  feeling  the  impediment, 
suddenly  changed  its  course,  and  again  disappointed  the 
crews  of  two  of  the  boats,  which  had  got  extremely 
near  it. 

'  Several  times  the  harpooners  seized  their  weapons, 
and  were  on  the  point  of  launching  them  at  the  fish, 
when  in  an  instant  it  shot  from  them  with  singular  ve- 
locity and  disappeared.  In  this  way  the  chase  was  con- 
tinued for  fourteen  hours,  when  the  fish  turned  again 
towards  the  wind.  But  the  men  were  exhausted  by  such 
continued  exertion,  together  with  the  haid  labor  to  which 
they  had  been  previously  subjected,  at  the  same  time  be- 
ing without  meat  or  drink,  and  sparingly  sheltered  from 
the  inclemency  of  the  weather. 

'  By  this  time  we  had  reached  the  boats  with  the  ship. 
The  wind  had  increased  to  a  gale,  and  a  considerable  sea 
had  arisen.  We  had  no  hope,  therefore,  of  success. 
As,  however,  we  could  not  possibly  recover  the  lines  at 
this  time,  stormy  as  the  weather  was,  we  applied  a  cask 
as  a  buoy  to  support  them,  and  moored  an  empty  boat 
having  a  jack  flying  in  it,  to  the  cask  with  the  intention 
of  keeping  near  it  during  the  storm,  and  with  the  expec- 
tation of  recovering  our  lines,  and  a  faint  hope  likewise 
of  gaining  the  fish  after  the  termination  of  the  gale. 
The  boat  was  then  abandoned.  We  made  an  attempt  to 
keep  near  the  boat"  with  the  ship,  but  the  increasing 
force  of  the  gale,  drove  us,  in  spite  of  every  effort  away. 


WHALE    FISH  BUY.  571 

On  the  first  cessation  of  the  storm,  we  made  all  sail 
towards  the  boat,  succeeded  in  finding  it,  recovered  boat 
and  line,  but  lost  the  fish. 

'On  the  twentyeighth  of  May,  1817,  the  Royal  Boun- 
ty, of  Lei th,  Captain  Drysdale,  fell  in  with  a  great  num- 
ber of  whales  in  the  latitude  of  77°  25'  N.,  and  longi- 
tude 5°  or  6°  E.  Neither  ice  or  land  was  in  sight,  nor 
was  there  supposed  to  be  either  one  or  the  other,  within 
fifty  or  sixty  miles.  A  brisk  breeze  of  wind  prevailed, 
and  the  weather  was  clear.  The  boats  were,  therefore, 
manned  and  sent  out  in  pursuit.  After  a  chase  of  about 
five  hours,  the  harpooner  commanding  a  boat,  who,  with 
another  in  company,  had  rowed  out  of  sight  of  the  ship, 
struck  one  of  the  whales.  This  was  about  four  o'clock 
in  the  morning1,  of  the  twentyninth. 

'  The  captain  supposing,  from  the  long  absence  of  the 
two  most  distant  boats,  that  a  fish  had  been  struck,  di- 
rected the  course  of  the  ship  towards  the  place  where  he 
had  last  seen  them,  and  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  morn- 
ing, he  got  in  sight  of  a  boat,  which  displayed  the  signal 
for  being  fast.  Some  time  afterwards,  he  observed  the 
other  boat  approach  the  fish,  a  second  harpoon  struck, 
and  the  usual  signal  displayed.  As,  however,  the  fish 
dragged  the  two  boats  away  with  considerable  speed,  it 
was  mid-day  before  any  assistance  could  reach  them. 
Two  more  harpoons  were  then  struck,  but  such  was  the 
vigor  of  the  whale,  that  although  it  constantly  dragged 
through  the  water  from  four  to  six  boats,  together  with 
16,000  fathoms  of  line,  which  it  had  drawn  out  of  the 
different  boats,  yet  it  pursued  its  flight  nearly  as  fast  as 
a  boat  could  row,  and  such  was  the  terror  it  manifested 
on  the  approach  of  its  enemies,  that  whenever  a  boat 
passed  beyond  its  tail,  it  invariably  dived.  All  their  en- 
deavors to  lance  it  were,  therefore,  vain.  The  crews  of 
the  loose  boats,  being  unable  to  keep  pace  with  the  fish, 
caught  hold  of  and  moored  themselves  to  the  fast-boats, 
and  for  some  hours  afterwards,  all  hands  were  constrain- 
ed to  sit  in  idle  impatience,  waiting  for  some  relaxation 
in  the  speed  of  the  whale.  Its  most  general  course  had 
hitherto  been  to  windward,  but  a  favorable  change  tak- 
ing place,  enabled  the  ship,  which  had  previously  been 


572  WHALE    FISHERY. 


at  a  great  distance,  to  join  the  boats  at  eight  in  the  af- 
ternoon. They  succeeded  in  taking  one  of  the  lines 
to  the  ship,  which  was  made  fast  to  the  ship,  with  a  view 
of  retarding  its  flight.  They  then  furled  the  top-gal- 
lant sails,  and  lowered  the  top-sails  ;  but  after  supporting 
the  ship  a  few  minutes  head  to  wind,  the  wither  of  the 
harpoon  upset,  or  twisted  aside,  and  the  instrument  was 
disengaged  from  its  grasp.  The  whale  immediately  set 
off  toward  the  windward  with  increased  speed,  and  it 
required  an  interval  of  three  hours  before  the  ship  could 
again  approach  it.  Another  line  was  then  taken  on 
board,  which  '^immediately  broke.  A  fifth  harpoon  had 
previously  been  struck,  to  replace  the  one  which  wag 
pulled  out,  but  the  line  attached  to  it  was  soon  afterwards 
cut.  They  then  instituted  various  schemes  for  arresting 
the  speed  of  the  fish,  which  occupied  their  close  atten- 
rion  nearly  twelve  hours.  But  its  velocity  was  yet  such, 
that  the  master,  who  had  himself  proceeded  to  the  at- 
tack, was  unable  to  approach  sufficiently  near  to  strike  a 
harpoon.  After  a  long  chase,  however,  he  succeeded  in 
getting  hold  of  one  of  the  lines,  which  the  fish  dragged 
after  it,  and  of  fastening  another  line  to  it ;  the  fish  then 
turned  fortunately  towards  the  ship,  which  was  at  a  con- 
siderable distance. 

'  At  four  o'clock,  in  the  afternoon  of  the  thirtieth,  thir- 
tysix  hours  after  the  fish  was  struck,  the  ship  again  join- 
ed the  boats;  when,  by  a  successful  manoeuvre,  they  se- 
cured two  of  the  fast  lines  on  board.  The  wind  blowing 
a  moderately  brisk  breeze,  the  top-gallant  sails  were 
taken  in,  the  principal  sails  hauled  up,  but,  notwithstand- 
ing the  resistance  a  ship  thus  situated  must  offer,  she  was 
towed  by  the  fish,  directly  towards  the  quarter  from 
whence  the  wind  blew  with  the  velocity  of  a  least  one  and 
half  or  two  knots,  during  an  hour  and  a  half.  And  then, 
though  the  whale  must  have  been  greatly  exhausted,  it 
beat  the  water  with  its  fins  and  tail  in  so  tremendous  a 
way,  that  the  sea  around  was  in  a  continual  foam,  and 
the  most  hardy  of  the  sailors  scarcely  dared  to  approach 
it.  At  length,  about  eight  o'clock  in  the  afternoon,  af- 
ter forty  hours  of  almost  incessant,  and  for  the  most  part 
fruitless  exertions,  this  formidable  and  astonishingly  vi- 


WHALE    FISHERY.  573 

gorous  animal  was  killed.  The  capture  and  the  flensing 
occupied  fortyeight  hours.  The  fish  was  eleven  feet  bone, 
(the  length  of  the  longest  lamina  of  whale-bone,)  and  its 
produce  filled  fortyseven  butts,  or  twentythree  and  a  half 
ton  casks  with  blubber. 

4  Excepting  when  it  has  its  young  under  its  protection, 
the  whale  generally  exhibits  remarkable  timidity  of  char- 


PROCEEDINGS    AFTER  A    WHALE    IS    KILLED. 

'  The  first  operation  performed  on  a  dead  whale,  is  to 
secure  it  to  a  boat.  The  more  difficult  operation  of  free- 
ing the  whale  from  the  entanglement  of  the  lines  is  at- 
tempted. As  the  whale,  when  dead,  always  lies  on  its 
back,  or  on  its  side,  the  lines  and  harpoons  are  generally 
far  under  water.  When  they  pass  obliquely  downward, 
they  are  hooked  with  a  grapnel,  pulled  to  the  surface  and 
cut.  But  when  they  hang  perpendicularly,  or  cannot  be 
seen,  they  are  discovered  by  a  process,  called  "  sweeping 
a  fish."  On  one  occasion,  I  was  engaged  in  the  capture 
of  a  fish,  upon  which,  when  to  appearances  dead,  I  leap- 
ed, cut  holes  in  the  fins,  and  was  in  the  act  of  passing  a 
rope  through  them,  when  the  fish  sunk  beneath  rny  feet. 
As  soon  as  I  observed  this,  I  made  a  spring  towards  a 
boat  at  the  distance  of  three  or  four  yards  from  me,  and 
caught  hold  of  the  gunwale.  I  was  scarcely  on  board 
before  the  fish  began  to  move  forward,  turned  entirely 
over,  reared  its  tail,  and  began  to  shake  it  with  such  pro- 
digious violence,  that  it  resounded  through  the  air  to  the 
distance  of  two  or  three  miles.  After  two  or  three  min- 
utes of  this  violent  exercise,  it  ceased,  rolled  over  upon 
its  side,  and  died. 

'In  the  year  1816,  a  fish  was  lo  all  appearance  killed. 
The  fins  were  partly  lashed,  the  tail  on  the  point  of  being 
secured,  the  lines,  excepting  one,  were  cut  away,  the  fish 
lying  meanwhile,  as  if  dead.  To  the  astonishment  and 
alarm,  however,  of  the  sailors,  it  revived,  began  to  move, 
and  pressed  forward  in  a  convulsive  agitation  ;  soon  after 
it  sunk  in  the  water  to  some  depth,  and  then  died.  One 
line  remained  attached  to  it,  by  which  it  was  drawn  up 


574  WHALE    FISHERY. 


and  secured.  After  a  fish  is  properly  secured,  it  is  car- 
ried towards  the  ship.  All  the  boats*  join  themselves  in 
a  line,  by  ropes  carried  for  the  purpose,  and  unite  their 
efforts  in  towing  the  fish  towards  the  ship.  The  course 
of  the  ship  is  directed  towaids  the  fish,  unless  in  calms, 
or  where  the  ship  is  moored  to  the  ice,  at  no  great  dis- 
tance, or  when  the  situation  of  the  fish  is  inconvenient 
or  inaccessible,  when  the  ship  is  obliged  to  wait  the  ap- 
proach of  the  fish.  When  the  fish  is  secured  to  the  ship, 
the  operation  of  flensing  is  performed.  For  this  a  varie- 
ty of  knives  and  other  instruments  are  requisite.  The 
enormous  weight  of  a  whale  prevents  the  possibility  of 
raising  it  more  than  one  fourth  or  fifth  part  out  of  the 
water. 

PROCESS    OF    FLENSING,    i.  6.    REMOVING    THE    BLUBBER. 

'  Before  the  harpooners  descend  upon  the  fish  their 
feet  are  furnished  with  spurs,  to  prevent  their  slipping. 
The  blubber,  in  pieces  of  half  a  ton  each,  is  received  on 
deck,  and  being  divided  '.here  into  portable,  cubical,  or 
oblong  pieces,  containing  near  a  solid  foot  of  fat,  and 
passed  down  between  decks,  when  it  is  packed  in  a  re- 
ceptacle provided  for  it  in  the  hold.  As  the  fish  is  turn- 
ed round,  every  part  of  the  blubber  becomes  necessarily 
uppermost  and  is  removed.  When  sharks  are  present, 
they  generally  help  themselves  very  plentifully,  during  the 
progress  of  the  flensing  ;  but  they  often  pay  for  their  te- 
merity with  their  lives.  Fulmars,  a  species  of  bird  of 
prey,  pay  close  attendance  in  immense  numbers.  They 
seize  fragments  of  the  fish  disengaged  by  the  knife,  while 
they  are  swimming  in  the  water,  but  most  of  the  other 
gulls,  take  their  share  on  the  wing.  The  burgomaster 
is  decidedly  the  master  of  the  feast;  hence  every'bird  is 
obliged  to  relinquish  the  most  delicious  morsel,  when  the 
burgomaster  descends  to  claim  it. 

'In  flensing,  the  harpooners  are  annoyed  by  the  surge, 
and  repeatedly  drenched  in  water,  and  are  likewise  sub- 
ject to  be  wounded  by  the  breaking  of  ropes,  or  hooks, 
or  tackles,  and  even  by  strokes  from  each  other's  knives. 
The  harpooners  not  unfrequently  fall  into  the  fish's 


WHALE    FISHERY.  575 


mouih,  when  it  is  exposed  by  the  removal  of  a  surface 
of  blubber,  where  they  might  easily  be  drowned,  but  for 
prompt  assistance. 

'  I  was  once  witness  of  a  circumstance,  in  which  a 
harpooner  was  exposed  to  the  most  imminent  risk  of 
his  life,  by  a  very  curious  accident.  The  harpooner 
stood  on  one  of  the  jaw  bones  of  the  fish,  with  a  boat  by 
his  side.  In  this  situation,  while  he  was  in  the  act  of 
cutting  away  the  carcass  of  the  fish,  a  boy  inadvertently 
struck  the  point  of  the  boat-hook,  by  which  he  usually 
held  the  boat,  through  the  ring  of  the  harpooner's  spur, 
and  in  the  same  act,  seized  the  jaw  bone  of  the  fish 
with  the  same  instruments,  and  thus,  the  poor  harpoon- 
er was  pinned  to  the  fish.  The  carcass  was  disengag- 
ed, and  began  to  sink.  The  harpooner  threw  himself 
towards  the  boat,  but  being  entangled  by  the  foot,  he 
fell  into  the  water.  Providentially  he  caught  hold  of  the 
boat  with  both  hands,  but  being  overpowered  by  the 
sinking  mass,  he  was  on  the  point  of  relinquishing  his 
grasp,  when  some  of  his  companions  got  hold  of  his 
hands,  while  others  threw  a  rope  round  ins  body.  The 
carcass  of  the  fish  was  now  suspended  entirely  by  his 
body.  He  remained  in  this  drradful  state,  until  means 
were  adopted  for  drawing  it  back  to  the  surface  of  the 
water.' 

The  process  of  extracting  the  oil  from  the  blubber  thus 
procured,  is  a  simple  one.  The  blubber,  which  is  a  sort 
of  solid  liit,  is  exposed  in  large  boilers  to  the  action  of 
heat,  and  the  oil  is  separated.  Sometimes  this  is  done 
on  board  the  ships  at  sea,  —  at  other  times  the  blubber, 
previously  cut  into  small  pieces,  is  stowed  in  casks,  and 
is  brought  home  in  this  state,  that  it  may  be  tried  out 
more  conveniently  on  shore. 

The  whale  fishery  is  a  very  important  branch  of  the 
business  of  this  country.  The  chief  to\vns  from  which 
it  is  carried  on  are  Nantucket  and  New  Bedford.  There 
are  in  the  former  fifty  manufactories  of  oil  and  candles. 
There  are  now  sixtytwo  ships  belonging  to  the  port,  and 
six  ships  are  building  for  the  whaling  business.  The 
value  of  this  fleet  as  fitted  for  sea  amounts  to  about 
2,000,000  dollars. 


NOTICE  TO  THE  READER. 

The  present  number,  it  will  be  observed,  completes 
the  first  volume  of  the  Scientific  Tracts.  There  was  in 
the  early  part  of  the  volume,  one  number  containing  thir- 
tysix  pages.  To  complete  the  number  of  pages,  as 
was  originally  intended,  we  have  made  the  two  last 
numbers  shorter  than  the  others.  We  have  added 
also  a  copious  index  of  the  subjects  treated  jn  the  vol- 
ume. The  miscellaneous  character  of  the  work  renders 
«uch  an  index  highly  necessary. 


INDEX. 


Aguado                               383-385 

Caucasian  race                           458 

Air,  resistance  of,                        53 

Characteristics,  distin- 

elasticity of,                          61 

guishing  of  man,         454-455 

pump                                     61 

Chimneys                           249-251 

gun                                 65-66 

Chyle                                          405 

current  from  E.  to  W.       215 

Clouds,  form  and  color,    262-265 

pressure  of,                     54-55 

Circulatory  system  in 

Amber                                          474 

man                                     41  J 

American  race                           459 

Circulatory  system  in 

Animals,  carnivorous,                406 

fish                                      411 

ruminating,                407 
Archimedes,  anecdotes 

Circulatory  system  in 
insects                                 412 

of,                                 528-531 

Circulatory  system  in 

Atmosphere,  its  uses,                1-5 

plants                                  412 

properties,        18-19 

Chaotic  Ocean                              23 

color,                      49 

Chloroid                                      103 

Aurora  Borealis                329-333 

Cold,  how  produced,                 155 

Coleoptera                          174-175 

Ballistic  Pendulum                    543 

Columbus,  early  education      355 

Barometer,  different  forms,  56-59 

first  voyages             356 

Birds,  carnivorous,             407-408 

residence  in 

Birches                                204-205 

Lisbon                     357 

canoe,                            205 

application  for  as- 

white,                           206 

sistance  to  Genoa 

red,                               206 

and  Venice             359 

yellow,                          206 
black,                             207 

application  for  as- 
sistance to  Fer- 

Bobadilla, Francisco,     585-7-370 

dinand  and  Isa- 

Bricks                                 237-238 

bella                360-361 

Building,  improvement 

first  voyage  of 

in  the  art  of,               233-234 

discovery         361-363 

Buildings,  foundations 

death  of,                    373 

of,                                244-248 

grave  of,                    373 

self-taught         378-379 

Carbonic  acid,  its 

self-command            383 

properties,                      13-15 

uniform  benevo- 

Carronade                                  537 

lence                       399 

Cataracts                            111-112 

Combustion                        157-158 

VOL.  i.                    53 

578                                                      INDEX. 

Condensation  by  cold                 223 

Electricity,  conductors  of,  503-505 

by  rarefying 
the  air                224 

heat  produced 
by,                   509-512 

Convex  glasses,  why  ne- 

effects  of    balls 

cessary                                123 

and  points  in,           513 

Cornea                                         104 

Franklin's  expe- 

Creation, order  of,                 30-32 

riments  in                522 

Electrical  Machine 

Deafness,  partial,                        306 

Entomology,  objections 

permanent,                307 

to,                 163-164 

Dew                                   269-270 

motives  to  the 

Differences  between  plants 

study  of,      165-169 

and  animals                         403 

Eprouvette                                 542 

Diptera                                181-183 

Ethiopian  race                            459 

Discovery  of  America               378 

Evaporation                          153-154 

Diving-bell                             68-70 

cause  of,                 253 

sugar  refined 

Ear,  external,                             282 

by,                        259 

musical,                              304 

effects  of,       270-273 

muscles  of,                  283-285 

interesting  phe- 

drum of,                      288-289 

nomena  of,  274-277 

tympanum,                  290-292 

Eye,  structure  of,                        98 

ache                                     305 

human,  socket  of,               99 

Echoes,  remarkable           324-327 

human,  globe  of,               100 

musical,               327-328 

human,  muscles  of,           100 

Eclipse                                339-3!  M) 

human,  sclerotic  coat 

Electricity                          474-476 

of,                                    100 

theory  of,                  476 

human,  aqueous  hu- 

effects produced 

mor  of,                    109-110 

by,  in  its  na'u- 

human,  crystalline 

ral  state                   478 

humor  of,                        111 

means  of  accu- 

human, vitreous  hu- 

mulating         479-480 

mor  of,                             1  14 

distributed  over 

the  surfaces  of 

Fire  engine                                  64 

boilies                      437 

Fluidity,  cause  of,                       150 

effects  produced 

Forest  trees                        187-207 

when  in   mo- 

tion                  497-500 

Gastric  juice                               405 

motionof,  instan- 

Geology, practical  know- 

taneous,   expe- 

ledge of,  increased       25 

riments  pioving 

application  of,  to 

it                       501-503 

the  aits                      26 

mechanical  ef- 

object of,                        27 

fects,                311-319 

a  branch  of  com- 

effects upon  the 

mon  education     41-45 

animal  system  519-521 

Gravitation,  general  law  of,       75 

attraction  and  re- 

heavenly  bo- 

pulsion of,       489-495 

dies,  bet  ween 

ligrht  produced 

the,                        75 

by,                   505-509 

cause  of,                  83 

579 


Gravitation     between     one 

Journal  of  a  soldier  in 

heavenly  body 

India                            534-538 

and     parts     of 

another                    77 

Lac                                              170 

between  parts 

Land  and  sea  breezes                216 

of  the  earth            78 

Lepidoptera                         177-178 

between  small 

Leydenjar                                    482 

bodies  and  parts 

Lightning,  house  struck 

of  the  earth           79 

by,                                      228 

between  small 

bodies  on  earth's 

Man,  physical  organization 

surface                    82 

of,                                  449 

laws  of,                    84 

stature  of,                          461 

effects  of,                 89 

different  tribes  of,             463 

discovery  of,           91 

Maple                                  196-198 

Granite                                235-236 

red  flowering,                 201 

Gunnery                             538-541 

white    .                          202 

black  sugar                     203 

Hail  and  snow                            268 

sycamore                        203 

Harpoon                                      426 

Norway                          203 

Heat  evolved  by  lightning        512 

Marble                                          235 

sources  of,                          156 

Masonry                             241-244 

bodies  expanded  by,         138 

measurement  of,  251-252 

cause  of,                            1  44 

Match  syringe                               67 

radiation  of,                       144 

Matter,  two'kiuds                       17 

reflection  of,                      146 

Malay  race                                     460 

conduction,                147-149 

Membrana  nictitans                    119 

distribution  of,                   149 

Meteors                                      329 

diminution  of,  from 

seen  by  Cavallo         335 

equator  to  pole        211-213 

seen  by  Sloane           334 

diminution  of,  from 

Meteoric  stones                         338 

the  earth  upward 

theory  of,             347-349 

Hemiptera                                    176 

Military  projectiles                   326 

Hispaniula,  as  it  appeared 

Mongolian  race                         458 

to  Columbus               365-368 

Monsoons                                   216 

Honey                                         17] 

Mortar                                  238-240 

Howitzers                                  537 

Mortars                                       538 

Hurricanes                           217-219 

Muscles  of  animals            413-414 

Human  species,  varieties 

of,                                405-409 

Near-sightedness                124-125 

Hymenoptera                     179-181 

Nervous  papillae                          418 

Nueroptera                                 178 

Iris                                              105 

Image  of  an  objert  <i  the 

Ossicula  Auditus               295-297 

eye                                125-126 

Optic  Nerve                                115 

Insects,  useiui  products 

Objects,  appearance  of,     126-1  27 

from,                             169 

Origin  of  man                     450-452 

eyes  of,                         127 

Ignis  fatui                           349-351 

Plastering                           253-251 

580 


Pigmentum  Nigrum                  117 
Pneumatics                                   49 

Silk  worms                         172-174 
Sounding  bodies,  vibrations 

Prime  conductor                        481 

of,                                        309 

Pump,  common,                           62 

Stone  liouses                              248 

Pupil  of  the  Albiiii                   129 

Sugar,  maple,                     198-200 

Rail-roads,  history  of, 

Table  mountain                         226 

width  required 

Tears,  uses  of,                            119 

car  for,                     551 

Thunder  storm  at  Bev- 

Manchester and 

erly                 227-231 

Liverpool            552 

clouds                         265 

Rain                                     266-267 

and  Lightning            227 

Respiration                         403-409 

Tunica  conjunctiva                   117 

Retina                                         103 

Rich  man,  death  of, 

Vision,  power  of,               121-123 

Rocket,  engine,                         552 

Rocks,  ages  of,                             32 

Walnuts                              193-194 

elements  of,               33-34 

Wax                                             171 

strata  of,                     35-41 

Wild  boy                             450-451 

Winds,  variable,                        217 

Sandstone                            236-237 

force  of,                     '    221 

Semicircular  canals           299-300 

Whale,  structure  of,                  475 

Senses                                 420-423 

fishery,  commercial 

Shooting  stars 
Shrapnells 

importance  of,             425 
interesting  nature  of,   426 

Sienite                                       :.'3tt 

ships  and  boats  used 

Sight  of  animals  in  the 

for,                               426 

dark                         130-132 

description  of,       427-447 

of  fishes                     133-135 

anecdotes  of,                485 

Sound,  motion  of  through 

unsuccessful  at- 

solids                           315 

tempt  to    cap- 

through air                     316 

ture                      569-570 

velocity  ol,             317-320 

taken    by    the 

phenomena  of,        320-321 

Bounty                        571 

distances  calculated 

killed,  proceedings 

by,                       321-322 

after                    573-574 

reflection  of,                  323 

process  of  flensing      574 

I 


(E 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

405  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


flEC'D  LD-UF 
"Jft! 


Series  9482 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


000657430     5 


University  of  Ca 
Southern  Reg 
Library  Faci 


